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biology > health, disease and development of medicines > Flashcards

health, disease and development of medicines Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

health

A

a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing

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2
Q

communicable disease

A

diseases which can spread between individuals
e.g. flu

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3
Q

non communicable

A

diseases which cannot be spread between individuals
e.g. cancer, heart disease

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4
Q

what are pathogens

A

organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists

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5
Q

cholera pathogen

A

bacterium

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6
Q

cholera symptoms

A

diarrhoea

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7
Q

how does cholera spread

A

contaminated water sources

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8
Q

how to reduce/prevent cholera spread

A

make sure that people have clean water supply’s

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9
Q

tuberculosis pathogen

A

bacterium

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10
Q

tuberculosis symptoms/effects

A

coughing and lung damage

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11
Q

how does tuberculosis spread

A

through the air of infected peoples coughs

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12
Q

how to reduce/prevent tuberculosis

A

infected people should avoid crowded public spaces

keep good hygiene

have well ventilated homes

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13
Q

malaria pathogen

A

protists

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14
Q

malaria symptoms/effects

A

damage to red blood cells and in severe cases to the liver

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15
Q

how does malaria spread

A

mosquitos act as a vector, pass on the protist to humans without getting the disease themselves

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16
Q

how to reduce/prevent malaria

A

use mosquito nets and insect repellent to prevent mosquitoes from biting them

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17
Q

stomach ulcers pathogens

A

bacterium

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18
Q

stomach ulcers symptoms / effects

A

stomach pain, nausea, vomiting

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19
Q

how do stomach ulcers spread

A

oral transmission

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20
Q

how to reduce/prevent stomach ulcers

A

having clean water supplies and hygienic living conditions

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21
Q

ebola pathogen

A

virus

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22
Q

ebola symptoms

A

haemorrhagic fever (fever with bleeding)

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23
Q

how does ebola spread

A

bodily fluids

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24
Q

how to reduce ebola

A

isolating effected individuals and serialisation

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25
Q

chalara ash dieback pathogen

A

fungus

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26
Q

chalara ash dieback symptoms

A

leaf loss, bark lesions (wounds)

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27
Q

how does chalara ash dieback spread

A

carried through air and wind, spreads when diseased trees move

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28
Q

how to reduce chalara ash dieback

A

removing young, infected ash trees and replanting different species

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29
Q

virus facts

A
  1. they aren’t cells, no more than a protein coat around a strand of genetic material
  2. can only reproduce inside living cells
  3. they have to infect living cells to reproduce
  4. specific types of viruses will only infect specific cells
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30
Q

what is the lytic pathway

A

1)The virus attaches itself to a specific host cell host cell and injects its genetic material into the cell.

2) The virus uses proteins and enzymes in the host cell to replicate its genetic material and produce the components of new viruses.

3) The viral components assemble.

4) The host cell splits open, releasing the new viruses, which infect more cells.

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31
Q

what is the lysogenic pathway

A

1) The injected genetic material is incorporated into the genome (DNA) of the host cell.

2) The viral genetic material gets replicated along with the host DNA every time the host cell divides - but the virus is dormant (inactive) and no new viruses are made.

3) Eventually a trieder (e.g. the presence of a chemical) causes the viral genetic material to leave the genome and enter the lutic pathway.

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32
Q

what is an STI

A

sexually transmitted infection transmitted though sexual contact

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33
Q

what is chlamydia

A

a bacterium bit behaves a similar way to a virus as it only reproduces inside host cells

34
Q

symptoms of chlamydia

A

results in infertility for men and women

35
Q

how is chlamydia reduced or spread

A

wearing a condom while having sex

screening individuals so they can be treated for the infection

avoid sexual contact

36
Q

what does HIV stand for

A

human immunodeficiency virus

37
Q

what is HIV

A

kills white blood cells, important in the immune response

38
Q

what does HIV eventually lead to

A

AIDS - acquired immune deficiency syndrome

39
Q

what happens to a person who has HIV

A

infects a persons immune system and deteriorates and eventually fails, they become very vulnerable to opportunistic infections by other pathogens

40
Q

how is HIV spread

A

infected bodily fluids

41
Q

ways to prevent HIV

A

using a condom during sex
avoid using needles
medication

42
Q

how can aids be prevented

A

it cannot

43
Q

how can plants defend against pathogens (physical)

A
  1. leaves and stems have a waxy cuticle as a barrier to stop pathogens entering them and pests from damaging them.
    Also can stop water transmitted diseases as water only collects on the leaf
  2. surrounded by cell walls made from cellulose
44
Q

how can plants defend against pathogens (chemical)

A
  1. produce antiseptics, kill bacterial and fungal pathogens
  2. chemicals which can deter pests from feeding on their leaves
45
Q

how do plants detect antigens

A

Pathogens have unique molecules on their surface called antigens.

Antigens from a particular pathogen will be present in a plant infected with that pathogen
and can be detected in a sample of plant tissue

46
Q

how do plants detect DNA

A

If a plant is infected with a pathogen, the pathogen’s DNA will be present in the plant’s tissues.

Scientists have techniques that allow them to detect even small amounts of pathogen DNA in a sample of plant tissue, allowing them to identify the particular pathogen that is present.

47
Q

what are some physical barriers

A
  1. skin - if it’s damaged it clots quickly so pathogens cannot enter
  2. hair and mucus - trap particles which could contain pathogens
  3. cilia - hair like structure which wafts the mucus up the back of your throat where it can be swallowed
48
Q

some chemical barriers

A
  1. stomach produces hydrochloric acid which kills pathogens swallowed
  2. eyes produce a chemical called lysozyme which kills bacteria on the surface of the eye
49
Q

how does your immune system attack pathogens

A
  1. every pathogen has unique molecules on its surface called antigens
  2. when your lymphocytes come across the antigen on the pathogen, they start to produce a protein called antibodies.
  3. antibodies invade the pathogen and become specific to that pathogen - won’t lock onto any others
  4. antibodies then rapidly flow round the body to find similar pathogens
  5. the memory lymphocyte remembers the pathogen so next time the body may not even feel ill as it can identify and kill it before it effects anyone
50
Q

what do memory lymphocytes do

A

give immunity to later infection

51
Q

what is immunisation

A

usually involves injecting dead or inactive pathogens into the body.
These are antigenic (they carry antigens), so even though they’re harmless your body makes antibodies to help destroy them.

52
Q

pros of immunisation

A

Big outbreaks of diseases, called epidemics, can be prevented if a large percentage of the population are immunised. - known as ‘herd immunity’

Some diseases, e.g. smallpox, have been virtually wiped out by immunisation programmes.

53
Q

cons of immunisation

A

doesn’t always work, sometimes it doesn’t give you immunity

can sometimes have a bad reaction to a vaccine, rare but still can happen

54
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies

A

identical antibodies

55
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies produced

A

are produced from lots of clones of a single B-lymphocyte.
This means all the antibodies are identical and will only target one specitic protein antigen

56
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies useful

A

they only bind to their target, ,means you can use them to target a specific cell or chemical in the body

57
Q

what is a hybridomas

A

can be cloned to get lots of identical cells

58
Q

how do you make monoclonal antibodies that target cancer cells

A

Cancer cells have proteins on their cell membranes that aren’t found on normal body cells.
In the lab, you can make monoclonal antibodies that will bind to these tumour markers.

59
Q

how can monoclonal antibodies be used to diagnose cancer

A

1) First, the antibodies are labelled with a radioactive element.

2) Then, the labelled antibodies are given to a patient through a drip. They go into the blood and are carried around the body.

3) When the antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells they bind to the tumour markers.

4) A picture of the patient’s body is taken using a special camera that detects radioactivity, Anywhere there are cancer cells will show up as a bright spot.

5) Doctors can see exactly where the cancer is, what size it is, and find out if it is spreading.

60
Q

how can monoclonal antibodies be used to find blood clots

A

1) When blood slots, proteins in the blood join together to form a solid mesh.

2) Monoelonal antibodies have been developed that bind to these proteins.

3) You can attach a radioactive element to these antibodies.

4) Then, if you inject them into the body and take a picture using a camera that picks up the radiation, that picture will have a really bright spot where there is a blood clot.

5) This is useful because you can easily find a potentially harmful blood clot

61
Q

what are antibiotics used to treat

A

bacterial infections

62
Q

what was the first drug discovered

A

penicillin

63
Q

what is preclinical testing (first 2 stages)

A

1) In preclinical testing, drugs are first tested on human cells and tissues in the lab. However, you can’t use human cells and tissues to test drugs that affect whole or multiple body system

2) The next step is to test the drug on live animals. This is to test that the drug works (produces
the effect you’re looking for), to find out how toxic (harmful) it is and to find the best dosage.

64
Q

what is clinical testing

A

1) If the drug passes the tests on animals then it’s tested on human volunteers in a clinical trial

2) First, the drug is tested on healthy volunteers to make sure that it doesn’t have any harmful side effects when the body is working normally.

3) If the results of the tests on healthy volunteers are good, the drugs can be tested on people
suffering from the illness. The optimum dose is found - this is the dose of drug that is the most effective and has the fewest side eftects.

4) Patients are randomly put into two groups. One is given the new drug, the other is given a
placebo. This is to allow for the placebo effect.

5) Clinical trials are blind - the patient in the study doesn’t know whether they’re getting the
drug or the placebo.
In fact, they’re often double-blind - neither the patient nor the doctor knows until all the results have been gathered. This is so the doctors monitoring the patients and analysing the results aren’t subconsciously influenced by their knowledge.

65
Q

how can you grow bacteria in the lab

A

make a agar plate

  1. hot agar jelly is poured into shallow round plastic dish called a Petri dish
  2. when the jelly is cooled and set, wire loops can be used to transfer microorganisms to the agar jelly or get a pipette to spread the bacteria
66
Q

how to investigate substances on bacteria growth

A

Place paper discs soaked in different types of antibiotice on an agar plate that has an even covering of bacteria. Leave some space between the discs.

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria will continue to grow on the agar around the paper discs, but non-resistant strains will die.

A clear area will be left where the bacteria have died - this is called an inhibition zone.

67
Q

examples of aseptic techniques

A
  1. sterilised before used
  2. lightly tap on lid over dish, stops air from getting in
  3. stored upside down, stops condensation
68
Q

calculate the area of an inhibition zone

A

area = pi x radius squared

69
Q

what lifestyle factors may increase risk of non communicable disease

A
  1. smoking
  2. diet
  3. exercise
  4. alcohol
70
Q

how is smoking a risk factor

A
  1. nicotine - cigarette smoke increases heart rate and increases blood pressure
  2. high blood pressure damages artery walls - fatty deposits build up which restricts blood flow and increases heart attack risk
  3. blood clots - restricts blood flow
71
Q

how is diet a risk factor

A

too many or too few nutrients can lead to malnutrition, e.g. scurvy and vitamin C deficiency

72
Q

how is exercise a risk factor

A

not getting enough and having a diet high in fat and sugar are risk factors for obesity

73
Q

how is alcohol a risk factor

A

major risk factor for the development of liver diseases

74
Q

how do non communicable diseases have wide range effects

A

where there is high risk factors, there may be high health risks and occurrence of non communicable diseases

it’s also costly for an area, some people may not be able to work so therefore effecting a countries economies

75
Q

what is the BMI equ

A

weight / height (m) (squared)

76
Q

what is the waist to hip ratio

A

waist circumference / hip circumference

77
Q

how does cardiovascular disease effect your heart and blood vessels

A

arteries are blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart, cholesterol is a fatty deposit which can build up in the arteries and restrict blood flow, causing health problems

78
Q

what drug can be used to reduce the risk of heart attack or stroke

A

statins

79
Q

what is a statin

A

reduces the amount of cholesterol in the blood stream, slows down the rate of which fatty deposits form

80
Q

lifestyle changes to reduce CVD

A
  1. change your lifestyle - reduce risk
  2. healthy balanced diet - lower fatty foods intake
81
Q

surgical procedure to repair damage

A

stents

tubes inserted in arteries - keep them open so blood can flow through - lowering risk of heart attack - opens them up

coronary bipass

if a blood vessel is blocked, healthy vessel can be taken from somewhere else and placed in the blocked area

biology (9 decks)

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