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ANAT 400 - Embryology > Head and Neck Development > Flashcards

Head and Neck Development Flashcards

1
Q

All vertebrates form ______, which are also called: branchial arches

A

All vertebrates form pharyngeal arches, which are also called: branchial (“of the gill”) arches

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2
Q

When do the pharyngeal arches appear? How do they develop?

A

Appear by 4th week

Develop sequentially from cranial to caudal

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3
Q

SLIDE 4

Where are the pharyngeal arches positioned?

A

On either side of the developing pharynx

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4
Q

______ in the head and neck form the peripheral nervous system and melanocytes, same as in the trunk

A

Neural Crest Cells (NCCs) in the head and neck form the peripheral nervous system and melanocytes, same as in the trunk

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5
Q

Neural Crest Cells (NCCs) in the head and neck form the _______ and _______, same as in the trunk

A

Neural Crest Cells (NCCs) in the head and neck form the peripheral nervous system and melanocytes, same as in the trunk

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6
Q

In addition to forming the peripheral nervous system and the melanocytes, what else can neural crest cells in the head and neck form?

A

Connective tissue, including cartilage and bone

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7
Q

______ are expanded regions of tissue on either side of the pharynx

A

SLIDE 8

pharyngeal arches are expanded regions of tissue on either side of the pharynx

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8
Q

The pharyngeal arches are filled with _______, mostly derived from ______

A

Slide 8

The pharyngeal arches are filled with mesenchymal cells, mostly derived from neural crest

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9
Q

What are pharyngeal pouches?

A

Pockets of endoderm between the pharyngeal arches

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10
Q

Pharyngeal arches develop _____ over the 4th week

A

Pharyngeal arches develop craniocaudally over the 4th week

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11
Q

Which pharyngeal arch is never externally visible and will regress?

A

Arch 6

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12
Q

What are the two parts of pharyngeal arch 1?

A
  • Maxillary prominence
  • Mandibular prominence
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13
Q

The 6th arch starring role is _______, otherwise it is often lumped with arch ____

A

The 6th arch starring role is ductus arteriosus, otherwise it is often lumped with arch 4

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14
Q

What are the three elements of the Pharyngeal Apparatus?

A
  • Pharyngeal arches
    • mesenchymal swellings (mostly from neural crest)
  • Pharyngeal pouches
    • outpocketings in internal aspect of pharynx separating adjacent pharyngeal arches
    • Endodermal
  • Pharyngeal Clefts/Grooves
    • external aspect separating adjacent arches
      • Ectodermal
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15
Q
  • Pharyngeal arches
    • ________
  • Pharyngeal pouches
    • __________
    • _______
  • Pharyngeal Clefts/Grooves
    • ___________
A
  • Pharyngeal arches
    • mesenchymal swellings (mostly from neural crest)
  • Pharyngeal pouches
    • outpocketings in internal aspect of pharynx separating adjacent pharyngeal arches
    • Endodermal
  • Pharyngeal Clefts/Grooves
    • external aspect separating adjacent arches
      • Ectodermal
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16
Q

What is the red circle in the image?

A
  • Pharyngeal Membrane
    • where endoderm and ectoderm meet
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17
Q

Each pharyngeal arch contains: (5)

A
  • Mesenchyme
    • Forms bones of viscerocranium (dermal bones)
    • Mainly neural crest
  • Cartilage
    • Skeleton of arch
    • Mainly neural crest
  • Muscle
    • Form muscles of face and neck
    • paraxial mesoderm
  • Nerve
    • innervation to muscle and mucosa of arch
      • cranial nerve for each arch
  • Arch Artery
    • Blood supply of arch
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18
Q

Each pharyngeal arch contains:

  • Mesenchyme
    • Forms _________
    • Mainly _______
  • Cartilage
    • _______
    • Mainly ______
  • Muscle
    • Form ________
    • ________
  • Nerve
    • innervation to _________
      • _______ for each arch
  • Arch Artery
    • _______
A
  • Mesenchyme
    • Forms bones of viscerocranium (dermal bones)
    • Mainly neural crest
  • Cartilage
    • Skeleton of arch
    • Mainly neural crest
  • Muscle
    • Form muscles of face and neck
    • paraxial mesoderm
  • Nerve
    • innervation to muscle and mucosa of arch
      • cranial nerve for each arch
  • Arch Artery
    • Blood supply of arch
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19
Q

_______ populate the arches

1st arch receives ______ and ________

other arches receive _______

A

neural crest cells populate the arches_______ populate the arches

1st arch receives midbrain and hindbrain neural crest

Other arches receive hindbrain neural crest

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20
Q

________ develops around 1st arch cartilage (called _______) in the _________ via _________ ossification

A

Mandible develops around 1st arch cartilage (called meckels cartilage) in the mandibular prominence (forms lower jaw) via intramembranous ossification (dermal bone)

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21
Q

Anterior portion of meckels cartilage will _______

Posterior portion will form the _______ and the _______

A

Anterior portion of meckels cartilage will degenerate

Posterior portion will form the sphenomandibular ligament and the malleus (ear ossicle)

meckels cartilage is the cartilage of the 1st arch

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22
Q

Maxillary cartilage forms ______

A

Maxillary cartilage forms incus

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23
Q

Where do the stapes and superior body+lesser cornu of hyoid bone develop from?

A

Proximal portion of Reichert’s cartilage (2nd arch)

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24
Q

The hyoid bone is formed from:

A
  • 2nd Arch Cartilage (Reichert’s cartilage)
    • Superior body
    • Lesser cornu
  • 3rd Arch
    • Inferior body
    • Greater cornu
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25
Q

Middle portion of Reischerts cartilage (arch 2) makes ________

A

Middle portion of Reischerts cartilage (arch 2) makes Styloid process

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26
Q

The 2nd arch cartilage (Reicherts cartilage) gives rise to two bones (_____ and _____) and the ligament (______) between them

A

The 2nd arch cartilage (Reicherts cartilage) gives rise to two bones (styloid process and (part of) hyoid bone) and the ligament (stylohyoid ligament) between them

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27
Q

What is eagles syndrome?

A

Elongated styloid process; can happen congenitally or later; ossification of ligament

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28
Q

4th/6th arches form _________ cartilages (2)

A

4th/6th arches form laryngeal cartilages

  • Thyroid cartilage
  • Cricoid cartilage
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29
Q

What are branchial vestiges?

A
  • Branchial vestiges are cartilage or bony remnants from the arch cartilages that fail to disappear through regression and remodelling and therefore remain under the skin
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30
Q

Muscles formed by Arch 1:

A
  • Muscles of mastication
  • Mylohyoid
  • Anterior belly of digastric
  • Tensor tympani
  • Tensor veli palatini
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31
Q

Muscles formed by Arch 2: (4)

A
  • Muscles of facial expression
  • Posterior belly of digastric
  • Stylohyoid muscle
  • Stapedius
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32
Q

Muscles formed by 3rd arch: (1)

A
  • Stylopharyngeus muscle
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33
Q

Muscles formed by 4th/6th arches: (3)

A
  • Constrictors of pharynx
  • Cricothyroid
  • Intrinsic muscles of larynx
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34
Q

Label the mm formed by the 1st arch

A
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35
Q

Label the muscles formed from the 2nd arch

A
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36
Q

Label the muscles formed from the 2nd arch

A
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37
Q

Label the mm formed by the 3rd arch (1)

A
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38
Q

Label the mm formed by the 4th/6th arches (3)

A

** intrinsic mm of larynx are deeper

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39
Q

Pharyngeal arch nerves:

  • Arch 1
  • Arch 2
  • Arch 3
  • Arch4/6
A

Pharyngeal arch nerves:

  • Arch 1
    • Cranial nerve V (trigeminal nerve)
    • Maxillary and mandibular parts get their own nerve
      • V1 - opthalamic
      • V2 - Maxillary
      • V3 - Mandibular (only one with motor)
  • Arch 2
    • Facial nerve VII
  • Arch 3
    • Glossopharyngeal nerve
    • IX
  • Arch4/6
    • Vagus nerve
    • X
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40
Q

Aortic arches connect ______ to ______

A

Aortic arches connect aortic sac (attached to heart) to dorsal aortae

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41
Q

RECALL: AORTIC ARCH REMODELLING

  • third arch becomes
  • Fourth arch becomes
    • left
    • right
  • sixth aortic arch forms _____
A

RECALL: AORTIC ARCH REMODELLING

  • third arch becomes common carotid arteries
  • Fourth arch becomes
    • left: arch of aorta
    • right: right subclavian artery
  • sixth aortic arch forms ductus arteriosus (LEFT)

ALL START IN PHARYNGEAL ARCHES

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42
Q

Pharyngeal Pouches:

  • there are ______ pouches separating the arches
  • These develop ______
  • ________-lined pockets
A

Pharyngeal Pouches:

  • there are 4, well-developed pouches separating the arches
  • These develop cranio-caudally
  • endoderm-lined pockets
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43
Q

Pharyngeal pouches form ________

  • 2nd pouch:
    • makes _______
  • 3rd pouch:
    • _______
  • 4th pouch
    • _________
A

Pharyngeal pouches form solid structures

  • 2nd pouch:
    • makes palatine tonsils
    • endoderm proliferates and forms stroma of palatine tonsils at back of mouth
  • 3rd pouch:
    • inferior parathyroid glands and thymus
    • endoderm proliferates → stroma of thymus → support for T4 cells (colonized by immune)
  • 4th pouch
    • superior parathyroid glands and ultimobranchial body
    • ultimobranchial body becomes integrated into thyroid
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44
Q

The thyroid originates from _______ on the floor of the ______

A

The thyroid originates from endoderm on the floor of the pharynx

Develops in Tongue and relocates

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45
Q

As the thyroid gland descends, it leaves behind a _________ (temporary structure)

A

As the thyroid gland descends, it leaves behind a thyroglossal duct (temporary structure)

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46
Q
  • Thyroid gland migrates below ______
  • _______ bodies migrate to thyroid and disaggregate, with cells becoming incorporated into thyroid and forming the ______ cells of the thyroid
A
  • Thyroid gland migrates below laryngeal cartilages (below thryoid cartilage)
  • ultimobranchial bodies migrate to thyroid and disaggregate, with cells becoming incorporated into thyroid and forming the C-cells cells of the thyroid
47
Q
  • C-cells in thyroid secrete _______
A

C-cells in thyroid secrete calcitonin (decreases blood Ca++)

48
Q

Calcitonin vs Parathyroid hormone

A

Calcitonin - secreted from C-cells in the thyroid - decreases blood Calcium

PTH - from parathyroid - increases blood calcium

49
Q

Thymus Gland:

  • ______ forms the stroma of the thymus
  • _______ form septa and capsule
  • in the 3rd month, ______ colonize the thymus
A

Thymus Gland:

  • endoderm forms the stroma of the thymus
    • ie: the epithelial cells that support the development and selection of T-cells
  • neural crest cells form septa and capsule
  • in the 3rd month, immune cells colonize the thymus
50
Q

Histogenesis of the Thyroid Gland

  • thyroid becomes divided into ______ which become arranged around a ______
  • By 11 weeks, ______ appears in clusters, now called _____ and hormone can be made and secreted
A

Histogenesis of the Thyroid Gland

  • thyroid becomes divided into clusters of cells which become arranged around a lumen
  • By 11 weeks, colloid (thyroglobulin) appears in clusters, now called follicles and hormone can be made and secreted
51
Q

Thyroid gland starts to function at 11 weeks. Before that, where does the fetus get thyroid hormone?

A
  • Maternal thyroid hormones are delivered to fetus via placenta
  • Controlled levels are important for proper fetal development
  • Fetal hormon prod begins in week 11 and rapidly increases = fetus less reliant on mothers hormones
    • still there as backup until birth
52
Q

What are 3 possible anomalies in thyroid development covered in class?

A
  • Congenital hypothyroidism
    • agenesis of thyroid gland
    • non-functional thyroid
  • Ectopic thyroid gland
    • eg lingual thyroid
    • related to movement
  • Accessory thyroid tissue
    • pyramidal lobe
    • remnants of thyroglossal duct
53
Q

What are thyroglossal duct cysts/sinuses and what are the potential risks

A
  • Cysts or sinuses left anywhere along the course of the thyroglossal duct (anterior and midline, usually just below hyoid bone)
  • May become infected
  • Fistula (abnormal connection)
54
Q

Pharyngeal clefts:

  • which pharyngeal cleft is the only one to form a mature structure or tissue?
A

The 1st pharyngeal cleft

55
Q

The first cleft and pouch come together to form ________, ______ with the ______ between them

A

The first cleft and pouch come together to form external ear canal (external auditory meatus), tympanic cavity with the tympanic membrane (arrow) between them

56
Q

The 1st pouch also forms the ________ connecting the middle ear to the nasopharynx

A

The 1st pouch also forms the eustachian/auditory tube connecting the middle ear to the nasopharynx

57
Q

Where does the otic placode (otic vesicle) come from?

A

From neurogenic placode (tissue beside neural crest)

58
Q

The otic vesicle differentiates into the _____ and ______

A

The otic vesicle differentiates into the semicircular canals and cochlea

59
Q

What forms the external auditory meatus?

A

1st cleft

60
Q

What forms the middle ear cavity and eustachian tube

A

1st pounch

61
Q

External ear (_____) develops from ______

A

External ear (pinna, auricle) develops from arch 1 and 2

62
Q

3 auricular hillocks (_________) form on the external surface of ______ around the first cleft and remodel into ______

Ear initially located in ________

A

3 auricular hillocks (mesenchymal swellings) form on the external surface of each arch (1,2) around the first cleft and remodel into pinna

Ear initially located in anterior neck region

63
Q

What process positions the ear on the side of the head near eye level (from anterior neck region)

A

Growth of the mandible

64
Q

Remaining pharyngeal clefts:

  • The second arch overgrows the more ______ arches and clefts and fuses with the _______
  • A temporary space is created, the ______
A

Remaining pharyngeal clefts:

  • The second arch overgrows the more caudal arches and clefts and fuses with the epicardial ridge (tissue overlying developing heart)
  • A temporary space is created, the cervical sinus
65
Q

What is the cervical sinus?

A
  • temporary pocket in neck tissue
    • formed from fusion of the second arch with the epicardial ridge (image in question slide)
  • sometimes remains as a cyst on either side of neck (problem if infected)
    *
66
Q

What happens if the cervical cyst persists?

A
  • may become infected and or form an internal or external fistula
67
Q

What is the sole functional role of the cleft?

A

External auditory meatus

68
Q

Mandible and Maxilla form via ________

A

Mandible and Maxilla form via intramembranous ossification

69
Q

The muscles formed from Arch 1 are all innervated by ________

A

The muscles formed from Arch 1 are all innervated by trigeminal nerve

70
Q

ARCH 1 (MECKELS CARTILAGE)

Label the in depth image of muscles formed from Arch 1

The two not seen are:

A

Tensor tympani

Tensor veli palanti

71
Q

SLIDE 4B Label the Trigeminal nerve branches

A

Label

72
Q

Label the bones/cartilage of the head and neck

A

label

73
Q

5B - ARCH 2

Label the Branches of the Facial Nerve

(To Zanzibar By Motor Car)

A

label

74
Q

Label the image -ARCH 3

A

label

75
Q

Label the image for Arches 4/6 Innervation

A

label

76
Q

What is Treacher Collins Syndrome?

A
  • First arch disease
  • Autosomal dominant allele of treacle leads to reduced neural crest cell number
    • Hypoplasia of facial bones (especially mandible and zygomatic bones)
      • Cleft palate
      • airway obstruction because tongue retracted
    • Deformed external ears
    • Middle ear abnormalities
    • Defects with orbit/lower eyelids
    • No neural impediment
77
Q

What is DiGeorge syndrome?

(Catch 22)

A
  • defective development of pharyngeal apparatus (especially 3rd and 4th pouches and arches)
  • Catch 22
    • Cardiac defects (aortic arch)
    • Abnormal faces (fish mouth/short philtrum)
    • Thymic hypoplasia
    • Cleft palate (NC involved)
    • Hypocalcemia
    • Microdeletion of chromosome 22
78
Q

11B - Development of face

_____ → source of connective tissue, cartilage, bone & ligaments of face

A

NCCs → source of connective tissue, cartilage, bone & ligaments of face

79
Q

12B - Five Facial Primordia

  • What are the five facial primordia?
A
  • Frontonasal prominence
  • Paired mandibular prominences
  • Paired maxillary prominences
80
Q

13B - What is the first change of the facial primordia (happens in week 5)

A
  • Appearance of nasal/olfactory placodes
    • form on the frontonasal prominence (FNP)
81
Q

13B - Nasal placodes

  • Form on the _____
    *
A

13B - Nasal placodes

  • Form on the frontonasal prominence (FNP)
82
Q

13B

  • Mandibular prominences have a ______ between left and right
    • This will close to form ______
  • The ______ separating the stomodeum and the pharynx finishes rupturing to form the _____
A

13B

  • Mandibular prominences have a partial sulcus between left and right
    • This will close to form continuous lower lip and jaw
  • The oropharyngeal membrane separating the stomodeum (cavity) and the pharynx finishes rupturing to form the oral cavity
83
Q

12B - Label the five facial primordia and the stomodeum

A

label

84
Q

Slide 14B - _______ develop around placodes

  • Nasal placodes sink into tissue → _____
  • Nasomedial and nasolateral processes are divided _____ and open to the _____
A

nasal processes (medial and lateral) develop around placodes

  • Nasal placodes sink into tissue → nasal pits
  • Nasomedial and nasolateral processes are divided ventrally and open to the oral cavity (continuous @ top and bottom)
85
Q

15B - ________ expand and fuse in the midline to make the bridge of the nose

A

15B - nasomedial processes expand and fuse in the midline to make the bridge of the nose

86
Q

16B Tips of maxillary prominences grow toward ______ and fuse, creating the ______

A

16B Tips of maxillary prominences grow toward nasomedial process and fuse, creating the nosstrils

87
Q

16B Tips of maxillary prominences grow toward nasomedial process and fuse, creating the nostrils

  • Separates _______ from ______ and forms _______
  • Fusion requires _______ and disintegration of ______
A

16B Tips of maxillary prominences grow toward nasomedial process and fuse, creating the nostrils

  • Separates nasal pits from oral cavity and forms continuous upper lip
  • Fusion requires NCC-mediated growth and disintegration of epithelia between tissues (Complicated process)
88
Q

16B Maxillary processes also fuse with ________ to connect side of nose and cheek

A

16B Maxillary processes also fuse with nasolateral processes to connect side of nose and cheek

89
Q

17B

  • _______ forms bridge of nose and philtrum
  • ________ form sides of the nose
  • ________ and ______ partially merge to form cheeks
A
  • nasomedial process forms bridge of nose and philtrum
  • nasolateral process form sides of the nose
  • maxillary and mandibular partially merge to form cheeks
90
Q

19B

  • Nasal pits enlarge to form _______ which fuse with oral cavity and pharynx
A

19B

  • Nasal pits enlarge to form nasal sacs which fuse with oral cavity and pharynx
91
Q

20B LABEL

  • what is the primitive choanae
  • Label the image
A

primitive choanae is an opening between nasal and oral cavity → make palate

92
Q

22B

  • Formation of the palate (palatogenesis) occurs in the _______ week
  • Critical period → ______
  • Formed in two stages:
    • development of _____
    • Development of ______
A

22B

  • Formation of the palate (palatogenesis) occurs in the 6th - 12th week
  • Critical period → end of 6th week to beginning of 9th week
  • Formed in two stages:
    • development of primary palate (wedging behind nasomedial process)
    • Development of secondary plate
93
Q

23B

Label the image

  • Orange
  • Yellow
  • Blue
  • Pink
  • green
A
  • Orange = frontonasal process
  • Yellow = primary palate
  • Blue = maxillary prominences
  • Pink = palatine shelves
  • green = nasal septum
94
Q

24B

________ fuse to the primary palate, to each other, and to the nasal septum

A

palatal shelves fuse to the primary palate, to each other, and to the nasal septum

95
Q

25B

  • Palatine shelves (*) are initially oriented _______ on either side of the ______
A

25B

  • Palatine shelves (*) are initially oriented inferomedially on either side of the tongue
96
Q

26B

By the 9th week, palatine shelves have ______, come into contact and are fusing together and with the _____

A

26B

By the 9th week, palatine shelves have rotated, come into contact and are fusing together and with the nasal septum

97
Q

26B

  • ________ production drives rotation of the palatine shelves
  • _______ associated with mandibular growth is also necessary
A

26B

  • hyaluronic acid production drives rotation of the palatine shelves
  • tongue depression associated with mandibular growth is also necessary
98
Q

27B Palate Formation after 12 weeks

  • The palate ossifies directly from ______
  • Posterior portion remains unossified as ______
A

27B Palate Formation after 12 weeks

  • The palate ossifies directly from mesenchyme
  • Posterior portion remains unossified as soft palate
99
Q

28B Facial Clefts

  • how do they form
  • can be ______ or _______
  • most common facial clefts are:
A

28B Facial Clefts

  • how do they form
    • if the five facial prominences do not fuse properly, there will be a facial cleft
  • can be unilateral or bilateral
  • most common facial clefts are:
    • Cleft palate
    • Cleft lip
100
Q

29B Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate

  • Two major groups:
    • _________
      • Cleft lip with or without cleft of alveolar part of maxilla
      • incomplete fusion of nasomedial process with one or both maxillary prominences (ie driven by improper fusion)
    • _________
      • Cleft of 2° palate
      • Defective development or fusion of palatine shelves
A

29B Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate

  • Two major groups:
    • Anterior cleft anomalies
      • Cleft lip with or without cleft of alveolar part of maxilla
      • incomplete fusion of nasomedial process with one or both maxillary prominences (ie driven by improper fusion)
    • Posterior cleft anomalies
      • Cleft of 2° palate
      • Defective development or fusion of palatine shelves
101
Q

29B Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate

  • Two major groups:
    • Anterior cleft anomalies
      • Cleft lip with or without cleft of ______ part of ______
      • incomplete fusion of _______ with one or both maxillary prominences (ie driven by improper fusion)
    • Posterior cleft anomalies
      • Cleft of ______
      • Defective development or fusion of _______
A

29B Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate

  • Two major groups:
    • Anterior cleft anomalies
      • Cleft lip with or without cleft of alveolar part of maxilla
      • incomplete fusion of nasomedial process with one or both maxillary prominences (ie driven by improper fusion)
    • Posterior cleft anomalies
      • Cleft of 2° palate
      • Defective development or fusion of palatine shelves
102
Q

30B Cleft lift

  • 60-80% of affected children are _____
  • Unilateral →
  • Bilateral →
A

30B Cleft lift

  • 60-80% of affected children are male
  • Unilateral → failure of fusion between one maxillary prominence and the nasomedial process
  • Bilateral → failure of fusion of both maxillary prominences with the nasomedial process
103
Q

31B Cleft Palate

  • results from failure of ______ to fuse with one another and/or with the _______
  • More common in _______
  • Can occur secondary to ______ and a failure to lower the ______
A

31B Cleft Palate

  • results from failure of palatine shelves to fuse with one another and/or with the primary palate
  • More common in females
  • Can occur secondary to mandibular dysplasias and a failure to lower the tongue
104
Q

33B Floor of pharynx

Label the image

2 -

4 -

A

2 - lateral lingual swellings (arch 1)

4 - hypopharyngeal eminence (arches 3+4)

105
Q

33B The ______ from arch one, is a major contributor to the tongue making the anterior ⅔rds

A

33B The lateral lingual swellings from arch one, is a major contributor to the tongue making the anterior ⅔rds

106
Q

33B The ______ from arches 3+4 will form the posterior ⅓rd of the tongue and the epiglottis

A

33B The hypopharyngeal eminence from arches 3+4 will form the posterior ⅓rd of the tongue and the epiglottis

107
Q

34B Label the image

A

label

108
Q

34B

Remnant of where thyroid developed left in the tongue = ______

A

Remnant of where thyroid developed left in the tongue = foramen cecum

109
Q

35B Tongue sensory innervation

  • Label the image
A

label

110
Q

35B

Endoderm of pharynx floor makes the ________ of the tongue

A

Endoderm of pharynx floor makes the mucosa of the tongue

111
Q

Which nerves innervate the tongue (sensory only)

  • CN __ & __ (taste)
    • anterior ⅔rs
  • CN ___ (_______ n)
    • posterior
  • CN __
    • back - epiglottis
A
  • CN V3 & VII (taste)
    • anterior ⅔rs
  • CN IX (glossopharyngeal n)
    • posterior
  • CN X - Vagus
    • back - epiglottis
112
Q

36B Muscles of the tongue

  • muscles migrated from ______ (______)
  • most muscles of the tongue are innervated by ______
A
  • muscles migrated from somites (paraxial mesoderm)
  • muscles of the tongue are innervated by cranial nerve XII (hypoglossal)
113
Q

36B Muscles of the tongue

  • Neural crest contributes to _______
  • Muscles originates from ______ of the _____
A
  • Neural crest contributes to connective tissue
  • Muscles originates from myoblasts of the first 4 somites

ANAT 400 - Embryology (14 decks)

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