Hazards Flashcards
1
Q
Where is Haiti located?
A
Haiti is located in the Caribbean, on the east of the island of Hispaniola.
2
Q
What geological characteristics make Haiti seismically active?
A
Haiti is seismically active due to two fault lines on a constructive margin, leading to high magnitude shallow focus earthquakes.
3
Q
What is the impact of deforestation in Haiti?
A
Deforestation makes landslides more frequent.
4
Q
What percentage of Haiti’s land is mountainous?
A
60% of Haiti’s land is mountainous.
5
Q
What social issues contribute to vulnerability in Haiti?
A
Poor quality housing, inherent poverty, lack of hazard education, 50% unemployment, and extreme rates of gang and organized crime.
6
Q
What is Haiti’s GDP per capita?
A
Haiti’s GDP per capita is $21,300.
7
Q
What percentage of the Haitian population lives on less than $2 per day?
A
77% of the population lives on less than $2 per day.
8
Q
Describe the political situation in Haiti.
A
Haiti has extreme political instability, with a militant, corrupt government, often relying on Haitian UN police for policing.
9
Q
How many tropical storms occur in Haiti annually?
A
Around 4-5 tropical storms occur in Haiti annually.
10
Q
What is the effect of tropical storms on Haiti’s economy?
A
In 2008, 4 tropical storms hit Haiti, affecting over 5% of its GDP.
11
Q
Fill in the blank: Haiti is the ______ developed country in the West.
A
least
12
Q
True or False: Haiti has a stable political environment.
A
False
13
Q
What caused the large shallow focus earthquakes in Haiti?
A
Haiti’s positioning between the North American plate and the Caribbean plate
Both plates are moving in the same direction, leading to seismic activity.
14
Q
What was the magnitude and depth of the earthquake that struck near Port-au-Prince?
A
Magnitude 7 with a 13km deep epicenter
The epicenter was just 25km from the capital city.
15
Q
How many people required emergency food aid after the earthquake in Haiti?
A
4 million people
This indicates the scale of the disaster’s impact on the population.
16
Q
What is the NDRMS?
A
An NGO project that developed an energy operation center for disaster management in Haiti, It was designed for civil servants to manage disasters effectively.
17
Q
What happened to the NDRMS Emergency Operations Centre during the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
A
It was destroyed
This significantly hampered disaster response efforts.
18
Q
What types of equipment did the NDRMS expand for disaster prediction in Haiti?
A
Weather monitoring equipment
This allowed the National Meteorological Centre to predict hazards more easily.
19
Q
What were the consequences of the 2010 Haiti earthquake on emergency response?
A
Poor rollout of aid and emergency responses, Many emergency crews were injured, affecting the response efficiency.
20
Q
How many people received emergency shelter materials after the 2010 earthquake in Haiti?
A
1.5 million people
This highlights the extensive need for immediate shelter following the disaster.
21
Q
How many children were moved to temporary education facilities after the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
A
195,000 children
This was part of the efforts to provide continuity in education despite the disaster.
22
Q
What percentage of displaced people from Port-au-Prince required health clinics after the 2010 Haiti Earthquake?
A
90% of people. This indicates a critical need for healthcare services in the aftermath of the earthquake.
23
Q
What negative consequence arose from the UN soldiers’ presence after the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
A
Spread of disease compounding the challenges faced by the affected population after the earthquake.
24
Q
Why was the Haiti 2010 earthquake thought to have had such a large impact?
A
Long term inaction was described as a contributing factor to the earthquake’s consequences Long-term inaction can exacerbate the effects of natural disasters.
25
When did Hurricane Katrina form?
25th August 2005
26
What was the maximum gust speed reached by Hurricane Katrina?
215 mph
27
Which US States did Hurricane Katrina impact after forming?
Florida, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi
28
What typical conditions in the Caribbean sea contribute to the formation of tropical storms like hurricane Katrina?
Optimal 25°C temperature and low pressure with strong winds
29
What latitude range is associated with the conditions for large tropical storms such as hurricane Katrina?
5-10 degrees
30
How many houses in New Orleans were flooded due to Hurricane Katrina?
110,000 of the 180,000 houses
31
What was the size of the disaster zone declared after Hurricane Katrina?
233,000 km squared
32
How many people were left without power after Hurricane Katrina?
5 million people
33
What type of infrastructure was damaged in the Gulf area due to Hurricane Katrina?
Oil installations (rigs and refineries)
34
What area in New Orleans was severely damaged, affecting tourism revenues as a result of hurricane Katrina?
French Quarter
35
What was the estimated financial cost of Hurricane Katrina in the USA?
$200 billion
36
Fill in the blank: Hurricane Katrina was the most deadly storm felt in the US for over ______ years.
75 years
37
True or False: Hurricane Katrina hit Florida before impacting Louisiana.
True
38
What environmental impact did Hurricane Katrina have on New Orleans?
The city and surroundings were completely flooded causing extensive damage to infrastructure and homes.
39
How many people became refugees as a result of Hurricane Katrina?
More than 1million people
40
What percentage of Katrina evacuees stayed within 400km of their homes?
75%, many people sought refuge in nearby areas.
41
On what date did the National Guard arrive in response to Hurricane Katrina?
9th September, their arrival was part of the emergency response efforts.
42
What actions did the Army Corps take after Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans?
Plugged levees and pumped water out of flooded areas
43
What shelter was set up for those who could not leave New Orleans?
New Orleans 'Super Dome'
44
How many people were stranded in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina?
60,000 people, this number highlights the scale of the crisis.
45
How many of the 60,000 stranded individuals were rescued by the Coast Guard?
More than 33,500 people, this rescue operation was a significant part of the emergency response.
46
How much aid was provided by the US government for Hurricane Katrina relief?
$50 billion ,this funding was essential for recovery efforts.
47
What supports the levees in New Orleans that were repaired after Hurricane Katrina?
New steel beams that are as deep as 65ft, these reinforcements were made to prevent future flooding.
48
Define Preparedness in managing wildfires
Increasing peoples' awareness of the potential hazards associated with wildfires.
49
What does mitigation aim to achieve in wildfire management?
Actions aimed at reducing the severity of an event and lessening its impact.
50
What is the goal of prevention in the context of wildfires?
Actions aimed at preventing large-scale events from starting.
51
What does adaptation involve in managing wildfires?
Accepting that natural events are inevitable and adapting behaviour accordingly.
52
What do wildfires need to ignite?
Fuel, Oxygen and heat
53
What is the purpose of controlled burning?
To reduce the amount of fuel available to help manage the risk of wildfires.
54
What are the potential impacts of controlled burning on the ecosystem?
Reduces litter store and releases carbon dioxide. This affects natural ecosystems and nutrient cycles.
55
Why is public awareness of rules important in wildfire prevention?
To enforce rules regarding the use of campfires, barbeques and other activity that could increase wildfire risk. This is especially crucial in campsites and public areas.
56
What do many countries implement during times of high wildfire risk?
'Fire bans’ to help mitigate the risk of wildfires.
57
Since what year has Smokey Bear been promoting fire safety?
1944, Smokey Bear has been influential in educating Americans about responsible fire behavior.
58
What percentage of Americans recognize Smokey Bear?
96 percent, His message of fire safety is well-known among the public.
59
What is the percentage of Americans who can recall Smokey Bear's message of fire safety?
70 percent, This indicates the effectiveness of his campaign.
60
How has the average number of hectares lost to wildfires changed since 1944 (the implementation of Smokey Bear)?
From 54 million hectares to 16.5 million hectares, This shows a significant reduction in wildfire damage over the years.
61
True or False: There is a belief that fires are a natural regenerative process within forest ecosystems.
True, Some advocate for allowing fires to take their natural course in certain circumstances.
62
List at least 2 ways that citizens can prepare their property for wildfires
Any 2 from:
- Reduce tree and brush cover
- Dispose of Debris left from thinning
- Remove dead limbs, leaves and other litter
- Stack firewood away from home
- Maintain an irrigated green belt
- Mow dry grasses and weeds
- Prune tree branches to around 10ft above ground
- Trim branches
- Clean roof and gutters
- Reduce density of forest surrounding property
63
What does mitigation involve?
Reducing the severity of an event by direct intervention and support following a disaster
## Footnote
This includes actions taken before and after disasters to minimize their impact.
64
Why is early fire detection crucial?
It allows for timely intervention to prevent the spread of wildfires
## Footnote
Early detection can significantly reduce the damage caused by fires.
65
What methods were historically used for fire detection?
Observation from high fire towers
## Footnote
This method has largely been replaced by more advanced technologies.
66
What modern technologies are used for fire detection?
Satellites, infrared sensors, and cameras
## Footnote
These technologies can detect thermal variations and early ignition of fires.
67
What is NASA developing for wildfire management?
Drone technology for surveying vast areas
## Footnote
This technology aims to enhance monitoring and response capabilities.
68
What is Back Burning?
Removing the fuel (vegetation) through burning vegetation ahead of the fire front to create a controlled barrier.
69
What natural barriers can be used to control fire spread?
Rivers
70
What is 'spotting' in the context of wildfires?
When embers are carried far from the active fire, igniting new fires elsewhere. Spotting can significantly complicate wildfire suppression efforts.
71
How can disaster aid mitigate the effects of wildfires?
By providing financial and logistical support to affected individuals. This support can help communities recover more effectively after a disaster.
72
What is the purpose of risk assessments in Colorado Springs?
To identify where the largest threats to individual homes are. This information was posted online to encourage community action in reducing risks.
73
What types of grants are provided to residents in Colorado Springs for fire risk improvement?
Federal, state, and local grants. These grants are aimed at those who cannot afford to make improvements.
74
What vegetation management practice is implemented around properties in Colorado Springs?
Thinning of vegetation surrounding properties. This practice includes using granular hardeners to protect housing.
75
What is the purpose of the curbside chipper program in Colorado Springs?
To allow free branch removal and reduce financial impact on locals. This program facilitates the cutting down of larger shrubs.
76
What type of roofing is promoted for homes in Colorado Springs?
Class A roofing, designed to provide better fire resistance.
77
What is a technique used in wildfire management to reduce the fuel available for fire through digging trenches?
Control lines may be built to reduce the amount of fuel available for the fire by removing potential fuels and using natural barriers such as rivers and terrain breaks.
## Footnote
This can be done manually with tools like pulaskis or with bulldozers.
78
What is the purpose of air drops in wildfire management?
Aeroplanes and helicopters release water and fire-retardant chemicals onto the wildfire.
## Footnote
These air drops help to suppress the fire and prevent its spread.
79
What are smokejumpers?
Smokejumpers are firefighters who parachute directly into wildfires.
## Footnote
They carry axes and small amounts of fire retardant gel.
80
What technique involves deliberately burning areas of land ahead of a wildfire?
Backfiring is used to deliberately burn areas of land ahead of the fire to use up the fuel.
## Footnote
This technique is controlled by firefighting services and may involve bulldozers for large areas.
81
How many smokejumpers are often active in the US?
There are often 450 smokejumpers active in the US.
## Footnote
They are deployed to remote fires that could potentially cause issues.
82
What actions do smokejumpers take when they arrive at small fires?
Smokejumpers remove fuel on the cutside part of the small fires and dig soil to cool it down.
## Footnote
This helps to prevent the fire from spreading further.
83
What is a crown fire?
A crown fire spreads across tree canopies and affects forested areas.
## Footnote
Crown fires are typically intense and can move rapidly through the treetops.
84
What is a surface fire?
A surface fire burns across surface vegetation.
## Footnote
Surface fires usually burn low to the ground and can affect grasses, shrubs, and small trees.
85
What is a ground fire?
A ground fire burns beneath the ground in layers of dry organic peat.
## Footnote
Ground fires can smolder for long periods and are often difficult to detect.
86
What does the ladder effect describe?
The ladder effect describes the process of fires from the forest floor spreading to the tree canopy.
## Footnote
This effect can lead to more severe fire conditions and increased spread of fire.
87
What was the nickname of the wildfire that swept across Alberta in May 2016?
The Beast
88
In which province did the Fort McMurray wildfire occur?
Alberta
89
What type of forestry contributed to the rapid spread of the Fort McMurray wildfire?
Wooded pine forestry
90
What was a significant psychological effect experienced by 1 in 3 students who experienced the Fort McMurrey Wildfire?
Symptoms of PTSD
91
What was the impact on adolescent alcohol and drug consumption among those who experienced the Fort McMurrey Wildfire?
Higher than surrounding populations of children
92
What did many families experience due to the rapid evacuation during the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
Loss of pets and homes
93
What was the general sentiment among residents regarding the rebuilding of their community after the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
A strong sense of resilience
94
Fill in the blank: The Fort McMurray wildfire had the largest impact on the ________ (Which region) of Alberta.
North east
95
True or False: The residents of Fort McMurray felt hopeless after the wildfire.
False
96
What year did the Fort McMurray wildfire occur?
2016
97
What type of fire was prevalent in the Fort McMurray wildfire?
Crown fires
98
What was a major consequence for families affected by the Fort McMurray wildfire?
Huge impacts on their mental health
99
How did the perception of the Fort McMurrey wildfire differ among residents?
Devastating yet resilient
100
When did the Fort McMurray wildfire ignite?
1st May 2016
101
What caused the initial control of the fire to change during the Fort McMurray wildfires?
A shift in the wind direction
102
What environmental conditions contributed to the outbreak of the Fort McMurray wildfire?
Early snow melt and warmer than average temperatures
103
What happened to the humidity levels and temperatures in late April before the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
Humidity was extremely low and temperatures soared
104
What were the temperature conditions in May during the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
Exceeding 30°C
105
What phenomenon helped to increase the intensity of the Fort McMurray wildfire?
El Niño Year (Above average temperatures)
106
What impact did the Fort McMurrey wildfire have on the boreal forest ecosystem?
Scorched soil and burnt tree roots
107
What risk does the dry and scorched party soil pose after the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
It could reignite at any time until the first heavy rainfall
108
How much carbon dioxide was released into the atmosphere due to the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
Several million tonnes
109
What toxins were released from burning trees during the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
Mercury, lead, and organic compounds
110
What environmental issue was caused by the toxins released during the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
Severe air pollution
111
What happened to the ash after heavy rain following the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
It was washed into water courses, leading to water pollution
112
What potential contamination risk arose from the ash washing into water courses after the Fort McMurrey wildfire?
Possible contamination of fish
113
What kind of waste had to be disposed of after the Fort McMurray wildfire?
Huge quantities of waste, including rotting food from freezers and toxic debris
114
How many people were forced to flee Fort McMurray due to the wildfire?
90,000 people
## Footnote
This mass evacuation was a direct result of the wildfire's impact on the community.
115
What was the estimated damage inflicted upon Fort McMurray by the wildfire?
CAN$9 billion
## Footnote
This estimate was provided by initial insurance company assessments.
116
How many homes and other buildings were burned down in Fort McMurray?
2400 homes and other buildings
## Footnote
This significant loss contributed to the social and economic impacts of the disaster.
117
What effect did the wildfire have on jobs and livelihoods in Fort McMurray?
Jobs and livelihood were affected and movement in the area was restricted
## Footnote
The disruption had a broad impact on the local economy.
118
What happened to the water supplies in Fort McMurray during the wildfire?
Water supplies became contaminated
## Footnote
Untreated water was deliberately introduced into the municipal water supply to assist firefighters.
119
What portion of the workers in the oil sands industry had to be evacuated due to the Fort McMurrey Wildfires?
About one third of the 25,000 workers
## Footnote
This evacuation led to a significant halt in production and operations.
120
Which company's mining operation was temporarily shut down due to the Fort McMurray wildfire?
Shell Canada Albion Sands mining operation
121
True or False: The Fort McMurrey wildfire led to increased levels of anxiety about the future among residents.
True
## Footnote
This psychological impact was one of the social consequences of the disaster.
122
What political debate was fueled by the Fort McMurray wildfire?
Impacts of climate change
## Footnote
The wildfire highlighted the potential damage related to climate-related events.
123
What role did government officials play during the Fort McMurray wildfire?
Oversee evacuation programmes
## Footnote
They had to coordinate with emergency services for effective evacuation.
124
What impact did the Fort McMurray wildfire have on transport in the region?
Transport was seriously affected
## Footnote
This included disruptions at the nearby international airport.
125
What was the immediate effect of the wildfire on power supplies in Fort McMurray?
Power supplies were disrupted
## Footnote
This disruption added to the challenges faced by residents during the crisis.
126
When did Cyclone Nargis strike Myanmar?
May 2008
## Footnote
Cyclone Nargis caused huge devastation in Myanmar during this time.
127
What type of government was in place in Myanmar during Cyclone Nargis?
Military dictatorship
## Footnote
Myanmar is known for its isolationist policies and avoiding western intervention.
128
Where did Cyclone Nargis develop?
Bay of Bengal
## Footnote
The cyclone started as a low pressure system in this region.
129
What was the initial classification of Cyclone Nargis on April 27, 2008?
Tropical depression
## Footnote
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) reported this classification.
130
How fast was Cyclone Nargis moving on April 27, 2008?
8 mph
## Footnote
The depression was moving north-west at this speed.
131
What wind speed did Cyclone Nargis reach by May 1, 2008?
100 mph
## Footnote
This increase was due to high water temperature and the Coriolis effect.
132
What category hurricane was Cyclone Nargis when it hit land?
Category 4
## Footnote
The cyclone had wind speeds of 135 mph at this point.
133
What town did Cyclone Nargis hit on May 2, 2008?
Wagon
## Footnote
The cyclone made landfall in this southwestern town.
134
What was the height of the storm surge produced by Cyclone Nargis?
3-3.5 metres high
## Footnote
The storm surge significantly impacted the coastline.
135
When did Cyclone Nargis finally subside?
May 3, 2008
## Footnote
The cyclone lasted for several days before it subsided.
136
What geographical feature contributed to the impact of Cyclone Nargis on the coastline?
Coastal inlets
## Footnote
The topography of the land along the coast funneled the storm surge.
137
What caused the storm surge from Cyclone Nargis to be channeled inland?
Coastal inlets along Myanmar's coastline
## Footnote
These inlets directed the surge further into the land.
138
How did the shallow continental shelf affect Cyclone Nargis?
It caused the storm surge to rise further inland
## Footnote
The shallow nature of the shelf amplified the surge.
139
What type of community was affected by Cyclone Nargis?
A densely populated rural community
## Footnote
This demographic increased the impact of the cyclone.
140
What was the estimated economic damage caused by Cyclone Nargis?
$10 billion worth of damage
## Footnote
This figure reflects the extensive destruction caused by the cyclone.
141
What percentage of buildings collapsed in Myanmar due to Cyclone Nargis?
75% of buildings
## Footnote
In the delta region, 95% of buildings collapsed.
142
How many temples were destroyed by Cyclone Nargis?
1,163 temples
## Footnote
This loss contributed to the cultural impact of the cyclone.
143
What environmental impacts did Cyclone Nargis have on agriculture?
The 2008 to 2009 harvests were destroyed
## Footnote
This led to significant food shortages.
144
What were the maximum wind speeds recorded during Cyclone Nargis?
Up to 135 mph
## Footnote
These winds contributed to the destruction of infrastructure.
145
What was the height of the storm surge during Cyclone Nargis?
7.6 m
## Footnote
This surge caused extensive flooding.
146
How far inland did floodwaters penetrate due to Cyclone Nargis?
40 - 50 km inland
## Footnote
This distance indicates the severity of the flooding.
147
What social impacts did Cyclone Nargis have on the population?
Lack of food and water, many died of disease
## Footnote
The aftermath led to numerous health crises.
148
How many children were orphaned as a result of Cyclone Nargis?
Many children were orphaned
## Footnote
This highlights the human tragedy of the disaster.
149
How many people were reported missing after Cyclone Nargis?
50,000 people
## Footnote
Many of these individuals were never found.
150
What was the estimated death toll from Cyclone Nargis?
At least 136,000 people
## Footnote
This figure represents the devastating human cost.
151
Approximately how many people were severely affected by Cyclone Nargis?
Around 2.4 million people
## Footnote
This indicates the widespread impact of the cyclone.
152
What was the extent of structural damage caused by Cyclone Nargis?
Extensive, causing over a million to become homeless
## Footnote
The structural damage was a significant issue in recovery efforts.
153
What was the initial perception of Cyclone Nargis among the population?
Many were unaware of the event until very late due to poor communication and warnings from the government
## Footnote
This lack of awareness contributed to the severity of the cyclone's impact on the population.
154
How did Cyclone Nargis affect employment for the people?
Many were left without a job, seeing the cyclone as life altering under economic collapse
## Footnote
The economic consequences of the cyclone exacerbated existing challenges in the region.
155
What type of programs were initiated following Cyclone Nargis?
Many education programs were implemented to help those most impacted recover and mitigate damage in future storm events
## Footnote
These programs aimed to build resilience among communities.
156
What was the initial response of the military government to Cyclone Nargis?
The initial response was appalling
## Footnote
The government was criticized for its lack of preparedness and ineffective management of the disaster.
157
Why did the military Junta refuse foreign aid immediately after the Cyclone Nargis?
They did not want foreign people coming into the country and destabilizing their political oppression
## Footnote
This refusal delayed crucial assistance to the affected population.
158
How long after the impact of Cyclone Nargis made landfall did the government request aid?
A full 6 days after the storm made landfall
## Footnote
This delay highlighted the government's skepticism and inadequate initial response.
159
What was the effect of the government's skepticism on aid distribution during Cyclone Nargis?
Aid was far more restricted and therefore less effective
## Footnote
The limited access to aid hindered recovery efforts for the affected communities.
160
When did the Junta finally allow international aid to be delivered in Cyclone Nargis?
Members of the Association of South-East Asian admittance were allowed to deliver aid from 19 of May
## Footnote
This acceptance of aid came after significant international pressure.
161
What were the conditions for the people of the nation regarding food and medicine after Cyclone Nargis?
The people were still limited to reduced food, medicine, and basic supplies
## Footnote
This scarcity of resources created ongoing challenges for the affected population.
162
What sea temperature is required for tropical storm formation?
27°C or above
## Footnote
This temperature provides a continuous source of heat to maintain rising air currents.
163
What is the minimum ocean depth required for tropical storm formation?
At least 70m
## Footnote
This depth provides moisture that contributes latent heat, which powers the storm.
164
At what latitude must a location be for tropical storm formation?
At least 5° north or south of the Equator
## Footnote
This is necessary for the Coriolis force to induce rotation of air.
165
What atmospheric condition is necessary for tropical storm formation?
Atmospheric instability
## Footnote
This condition causes the convergence of air in the lower atmosphere.
166
What type of winds are required for tropical storm formation?
Uniform winds
## Footnote
Uniform winds allow for wind speeds to build up, which is essential for storm development.
167
What is the first stage of a tropical storm?
Developing: With sea surface temperatures over 27°C, warm air rises and starts to spin
## Footnote
This stage is critical for the formation of a storm system.
168
What occurs during the Embryo stage of storms?
Clusters of thunderstorms drift over warm ocean waters
## Footnote
This stage indicates the initial organization of storm elements.
169
What happens during the Decaying stage of a tropical storm?
As the tropical storm moves over land, it loses its source of energy and weakens
## Footnote
The transition to land is crucial for the storm's lifecycle.
170
What characterizes the Mature stage of a tropical storm?
As the tropical storm moves over the ocean, it picks up more warm air, wind speeds increase and it grows in size
## Footnote
This stage is when the storm is at its strongest and most developed.
171
What happens to average air temperature due to global warming?
Average air temperature increases.
## Footnote
This increase is a key factor in climate change and its effects on weather patterns.
172
What effect does increasing average air temperature have on sea temperature?
Sea heats up.
## Footnote
The warming of the sea is a direct consequence of rising air temperatures.
173
What is the global effect of increased water temperature?
Average water temperature globally increases.
## Footnote
This increase affects marine ecosystems and weather patterns.
174
How does increased water temperature affect the occurrence of tropical storms?
Increases the area in which tropical storms can occur.
## Footnote
Warmer waters provide more energy for storms, potentially leading to more frequent and intense tropical storms.
175
Which areas may soon see tropical storms due to climatic changes?
Areas further north and south of the equator.
## Footnote
This shift may expose regions previously unaffected by tropical storms to severe weather.
176
What does aseismic mean in the context of building design?
Earthquake resistant
## Footnote
Aseismic structures are designed to withstand seismic forces.
177
Name one method to make a building earthquake resistant.
Using a large concrete weight that moves in the opposite direction of the earthquake force
## Footnote
This method counteracts stress during seismic events.
178
What is the purpose of large rubber shock absorbers in building foundations?
To allow for movement of the building and reduce the effect of seismic waves
## Footnote
Shock absorbers help to minimize structural damage during earthquakes.
179
How do cross bracing steel beams contribute to earthquake resistance?
They hold the structure together when it shakes
## Footnote
Cross bracing enhances the lateral stability of buildings.
180
What can be done to older buildings to improve their earthquake resistance?
Retrofitting with devices such as shock absorbers and bracing
## Footnote
This process helps to modernize and strengthen existing structures.
181
How can education help minimize loss of life during earthquakes?
By issuing instructions on home preparation and conducting drills
## Footnote
Education plays a crucial role in disaster preparedness.
182
What measures are taken in schools to prepare for earthquakes?
Children participate in earthquake drills
## Footnote
Drills help instill emergency response behaviors in students.
183
What is the function of smart meters in fire prevention during earthquakes?
They can cut off gas supply when a significant earthquake occurs
## Footnote
Smart meters help prevent gas leaks that could lead to fires.
184
How does the gas network in Tokyo respond to seismic activity?
Transmits seismic information to a computer that informs employees to switch off pipelines
## Footnote
This system reduces the risk of gas leaks and subsequent fires.
185
What is essential for effective emergency services organization?
Careful planning and availability of heavy lifting gear
## Footnote
Many people should also receive first aid training due to potential delays in medical personnel arrival.
186
How can hazardous areas be managed in land use planning during earthquakes?
Identify hazardous areas and regulate land use
## Footnote
Important structures like schools and hospitals should be placed in low-risk areas.
187
What is the significance of open space in land use planning?
Provides a safe area away from fires and aftershock damage
## Footnote
Open spaces are crucial for safety during and after seismic events.
188
What is a common recommendation for residents in wealthier areas regarding insurance?
Take out insurance to cover potential losses
## Footnote
The high cost can be a significant burden for individuals.
189
What type of aid is typically provided to poorer nations after a disaster?
Medical services, shelter, water purification, search and rescue equipment
## Footnote
Aid in the immediate aftermath is more common than long-term reconstruction support.
190
What are the challenges associated with long-term aid after disasters?
Reconstruction of the built environment and economic redevelopment
## Footnote
Long-term aid is often more complex and difficult to coordinate.
191
Can tsunamis be entirely predicted?
No
## Footnote
However, automated systems can provide warnings based on pressure sensors.
192
What technology is used to predict the impact of impending tsunamis?
Bottom pressure sensors attached to buoys
## Footnote
These sensors measure the pressure of the overlying water column to detect tsunami waves.
193
Fill in the blank: Certain types of buildings should be placed in areas of ______ risk.
low
194
When did the Tohoku Earthquake occur?
March 11, 2011
195
What was the magnitude of the Tohoku Earthquake?
9.0
196
How far was the Tohoku earthquake felt from Japan's east coast?
80 miles
197
What immediate action was triggered by the Tohoku earthquake?
Tsunami warnings
198
Which power station was particularly affected by the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami?
Fukushima power station
199
What type of event was the Tohoku Earthquake categorized as?
1 in 1000 year event
200
What contributed to the large magnitude of the Tohoku earthquake?
Seismic waves travelling along interlinked fault systems
201
How long did the seismic waves travel to build up energy during the Tohoku earthquake?
Around 500 km
202
How many consecutive earthquakes occurred during the Tohoku earthquake event?
3
203
How quickly did the tsunami develop after the Tohoku earthquake?
Within 20 minutes
204
What areas were inundated by the tsunami during the Tohoku earthquake?
Coastal lowlands
205
How many aftershocks greater than magnitude 5.0 were recorded in the weeks following the Tohoku earthquake disaster?
420
206
Fill in the blank: The Tohoku Earthquake was felt _____ miles east of Japan's coast.
80
207
True or False: The Tohoku Earthquake triggered tsunami warnings immediately after it occurred.
True
208
What contributed to the vulnerability of Japan's coastline during the Tsunami formed due to the Tohoku earthquake?
Multiple factors including geological and geographical features
## Footnote
These factors led to harsher primary and secondary impacts on Japan socially, economically, environmentally, and politically.
209
What type of earthquakes were predicted off the Sendai coastline during the Tohoku earthquake?
Small earthquakes
## Footnote
This prediction was based on the characteristics of the older, cooler, and denser crust.
210
What is a Ria coastline, how did Japans effect the wave energy of the Tohoku Tsunami?
A rugged and jagged coastline with many inlets
## Footnote
This geographical feature concentrates wave energy into bays and rivers.
211
What percentage of Japan is mountainous, how did this impact the Tohoku tsunami?
70%
## Footnote
This mountainous terrain forces urban and industrial development into narrow, low-lying coastal areas.
212
What type of land is susceptible to ground shaking in Japan, how did this effect the Tohoku earthquake?
Soft reclaimed land
## Footnote
This susceptibility can lead to landslides during seismic events.
213
What did the Japanese Prime Minister acknowledge regarding government officials after the Tohoku disaster?
They were too complacent and believed in technological infallibility
## Footnote
This acknowledgment reflects a critical view of the preparedness for disasters.
214
What major incident occurred due to the position of the Fukushima nuclear power plant as a result of the Tohoku disaster?
A nuclear explosion
## Footnote
This explosion triggered the formation of an area of radiation.
215
Fill in the blank: Japan’s rugged coastal features lead to concentrated wave energy in _______ as a result of the Tohoku Tsunami.
bays and rivers
## Footnote
This concentration increases the destructive potential of waves during a tsunami.
216
What was the recorded death toll of the Tohoku Earthquake?
Around 20,000
## Footnote
With 3,000 still missing and over 60% of the deaths being elderly people.
217
How many buildings were destroyed due to the Tohoku Earthquake?
Over 300,000 buildings
## Footnote
Additionally, just under 1,000,000 buildings were damaged, leaving half a million people homeless.
218
What infrastructure was damaged during the Tohoku Earthquake?
4,000 roads, 78 bridges, and 29 railways
## Footnote
This extensive damage impacted transportation and recovery efforts.
219
What major nuclear incident occurred as a result of the Tohoku Earthquake?
Fukushima nuclear explosion
## Footnote
This included partial reactor meltdowns, hydrogen explosions, and leaks of radiation, causing a 12-mile evacuation zone.
220
What environmental issue arose from the Fukushima incident?
Need for environmental cleanup
## Footnote
This involved removing radioactive layers of soil nearby.
221
What natural disaster accompanied the Tohoku Earthquake?
A tsunami of almost 40 metres
## Footnote
The tsunami caused many secondary impacts along a 2000 km stretch.
222
What was the magnitude of the Tohoku Earthquake?
9.0
## Footnote
It was described as a 1 in 1000 year event.
223
Fill in the blank: The Tohoku Earthquake caused a tsunami with a height of almost _______.
40 metres
224
True or False: Over 60% of the deaths from the Tohoku Earthquake were elderly people.
True
225
Fill in the blank: Approximately _______ buildings were left destroyed after the Tohoku Earthquake.
300,000
226
What was the radius of the evacuation zone caused by the Fukushima nuclear incident?
12 miles
227
What percentage of the deaths were elderly people in the Tohoku Earthquake?
Over 60%
228
What natural phenomenon triggered many landslides in mountainous areas during the Tohoku Earthquake?
The earthquake
229
Fill in the blank: The Tohoku Earthquake resulted in _______ roads being damaged.
4,000
230
What was the general evaluation of the short term responses to the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami?
Short term responses proved fairly unsuccessful compared to long term responses.
231
What assumption was made regarding the predictions for the Tohoku earthquake?
Predictions assumed a point source of energy.
232
What limitation did the protection systems in Japan have during the Tohoku earthquake?
Protection systems only cope with an 8.0 magnitude earthquake.
233
What false sense did many people have regarding Japan's disaster preparedness during the Tohoku earthquake?
Many felt a false sense of security with Japan's world-class advanced protection systems.
234
What critical element was missing from the risk map produced for the Tohoku earthquake?
The risk map did not include the prediction of a powerful 500km range tsunami.
235
What role did well-practiced drills play during the Tohoku earthquake?
Well-practiced drills taught to students and residents were critical in saving communities.
236
How many children were evacuated to high ground in Kamaishi after the Tohoku earthquake?
3000 children were evacuated to high ground.
237
What long-term response actions were taken in areas impacted by Fukushima?
Redevelopment and soil removal were conducted in impacted areas.
238
What was the impact of the Tohoku disaster on nuclear power plants in Japan? How many power plants were closed?
The disaster led to the temporary closure of 54 nuclear power plants for maintenance.
239
How many search and rescue specialists did the UK send to assist in the Tohoku disaster?
63 search and rescue specialists were sent by the UK.
240
How many Japanese soldiers were deployed in response to the Tohoku disaster?
100,000 Japanese soldiers were deployed.
241
What factor contributed to the high death toll in the Tohoku disaster?
An ageing population was crucial in the high death toll.
242
What is a common sentiment among people regarding returning to areas affected by radiation during the Tohoku disaster?
Many believe they should return to the area of the fallout as it is their ancestral home. However some are still not willing to accept the risk of returning.
243
What is the main concern for the majority of people who have not returned to the fallout area created by the Tohoku earthquake?
Concern about the radiation's risk to their health.
244
Fill in the blank: The Tohoku earthquake's predictions were reliant on the world's densest _______.
seismometer network
245
What was the magnitude of the earthquake that occurred on March 2011?
9.0
246
How far offshore was the Tohoku earthquake felt?
80 miles
247
What was the death toll associated with the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami?
Around 28,000 dead or missing
248
How far inland does the coastal plain go following the Tohoku tsunami?
3 miles
249
What is the size of the evacuation zone around the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant as a result of the Tohoku earthquake?
12 miles
250
How many bags of nuclear waste are being stored after the Fukushima disaster?
9 million bags
251
What was the cost associated with the Fukushima disaster?
20 billion yen
252
What happened to the school in Naraha following the Tohoku disaster?
It was demolished and then rebuilt to a 300 pupil capacity, only 68 students returned
253
How many students were present at the rebuilt school in Naraha after the Tohoku earthquake?
68 students
254
What was installed in the car park of the rebuilt school in Naraha as a result of the Tohoku earthquake?
A radiation monitor
255
What must be done to each food ingredient before consumption in the affected area of radiation due to the Fukushima disaster?
Each ingredient has to be tested for radiation
256
True or False: Less than half of the residents returned to Naraha after it was deemed safe.
True
257
Fill in the blank: Many see the evacuation radius of Fukushima as an __________ home and feel as if they had to return.
ancestral/historic
258
What incentive was provided to residents to move back into Naraha after the cleanup of the Fukushima evacuation radius?
Subsidies to move out were removed
259
What are earthquakes?
Sudden and violent movements of the rocks within the Earth's crust, causing vibrations called seismic waves at the epicentre of the movements.
## Footnote
Earthquakes can vary in intensity and impact depending on their location and depth.
260
What is the focus of an earthquake?
The point within the Earth's crust where the earthquake originated from.
## Footnote
This is also known as the hypocenter.
261
What is the epicentre of an earthquake?
The point where the shock waves reach the crust's surface.
## Footnote
The epicentre is directly above the focus.
262
Where are the majority of earthquakes found globally?
At major plate boundaries, such as the mid-Atlantic ridge or the Ring of Fire.
## Footnote
These areas are tectonically active and prone to seismic activity.
263
What type of earthquakes occur at destructive margins?
Deeper focus earthquakes, which are less powerful due to greater wave energy dissipation.
## Footnote
These earthquakes originate at significant depths within the Earth's crust.
264
Where are shallow focus earthquakes found?
At constructive and conservative margins, where more powerful earthquakes are felt.
## Footnote
Shallow focus earthquakes can cause significant damage due to their proximity to the surface.
265
What are primary waves?
The fastest type of seismic wave, recorded first on seismographs, able to travel through solids and fluids with longitudinal compressions.
## Footnote
Primary waves push and pull on the crust.
266
What are secondary waves?
Slower traveling transverse waves that can move through solid rock, shaking the crust up and down.
## Footnote
Secondary waves cannot travel through fluids.
267
What are Love waves?
A type of surface wave that moves the ground from side to side, often considered the most destructive in terms of infrastructure.
## Footnote
Love waves are named after A.E.H. Love, who developed a mathematical model for their propagation.
268
What are Rayleigh waves?
Waves near the surface that move in an ellipse as the wave passes, breaking up the surface.
## Footnote
Rayleigh waves can cause significant shaking and damage.
269
What is the Richter Scale?
A logarithmic scale (from 1 to 9) measuring energy released proportional to magnitude
## Footnote
Many geologists criticize it for being region-specific and only measuring body waves.
270
What are the limitations of the Richter Scale?
Region-specific and only measures earthquake body waves
## Footnote
This has led to dissatisfaction among geologists regarding its effectiveness.
271
What is the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS)?
A scale that estimates the total energy released by an earthquake, applicable to all sizes and distances
## Footnote
It is the preferred method of measurement for earthquakes.
272
How does the Moment Magnitude Scale differ from the Richter Scale?
MMS can rate earthquakes of all sizes and distances, while Richter is limited in scope
## Footnote
MMS follows a logarithmic 1-10 scale without the issues of the Richter scale.
273
What is the Mercali Intensity Scale?
A subjective, qualitative scale based on observed damage caused by an earthquake
## Footnote
It is not a preferred method for measuring seismic activity.
274
What are secondary seismic hazards?
Tsunamis, landslides, avalanches, fires, soil liquefaction
## Footnote
These hazards are caused by seismic activity and can lead to significant destruction.
275
What causes a tsunami?
Displacement of water due to the movement of the earth's crust
## Footnote
An example is the Boxing Day Tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004.
276
What can trigger landslides and avalanches?
Seismic waves and plate slip
## Footnote
An example is the Nepal Avalanche in 2018.
277
How can earthquakes lead to fires?
Falling power cables can ignite fires
## Footnote
A notable example is the Kobe earthquake in Japan in 1995.
278
What is soil liquefaction?
Loosely packed soil held by friction can slip and fill with water during an earthquake
## Footnote
This phenomenon can cause land to behave like a fluid, as seen in Palau, Indonesia, in 2018.
279
What was the impact of the 7.9 magnitude earthquake in Indonesia?
250,000 homes were destroyed
## Footnote
This destruction was partly due to soil liquefaction.
280
What magnitude was the earthquake that caused the Boxing Day Tsunami?
9.1
## Footnote
The earthquake occurred in the Indian Ocean, north west of Sumatra, Indonesia.
281
How many people were killed by the Boxing Day Tsunami?
230,000
## Footnote
Millions lost their homes due to the tsunami.
282
What was the height of the waves that hit Sumatra during the Boxing Day Tsunami?
20m
## Footnote
The waves struck just 15 minutes after the earthquake.
283
What natural disaster occurred in Nepal in 2015?
Avalanche
## Footnote
The avalanche was caused by an earthquake and affected Everest base camp.
284
How many people died as a result of the Nepal 2015 avalanche?
18
## Footnote
Hundreds were directly affected, and many upper level base camps were demolished.
285
What are some factors that affect vulnerability to seismic hazards?
* Hazard Resistant Structures
* Wealth
* Education + Preparation strategies
* Fire Prevention, Aid and Emergency services
* Topography of Surroundings
* Defence infrastructure
286
Fill in the blank: Hazard _______ Structures can reduce vulnerability to seismic hazards.
[Resistant]
## Footnote
These structures are designed to withstand seismic activity.
287
True or False: Education and preparation strategies can increase vulnerability to seismic hazards.
False
## Footnote
Education and preparation strategies help reduce vulnerability.
288
What are the main components of the Earth's core?
Iron and Nickel
## Footnote
The inner core is solid despite temperatures around 3700 degrees Celsius.
289
What causes convection currents in the Earth's core?
High temperatures in the inner core
## Footnote
These temperatures lead to the movement of molten material.
290
What is the composition of the mantle?
Molten silicates and other minerals
## Footnote
It is the source of movement in Earth's interior.
291
How deep do convection currents in the mantle extend?
2900 km deep
## Footnote
This depth is significant for the movement of tectonic plates.
292
What are the two types of crust?
Continental and Oceanic
## Footnote
Continental crust is less dense, while oceanic crust is more dense.
293
What is the thickness of the lithosphere?
Approximately 80 - 90 km thick
## Footnote
It includes the crust and the rigid upper section of the mantle.
294
What does the lithosphere consist of?
Crust and rigid upper mantle
## Footnote
It is divided into 7 different larger plates.
295
What is the asthenosphere?
Semi-molten layer beneath the lithosphere
## Footnote
This allows the tectonic plates above to float and move.
296
What theory did Alfred Wegener propose?
Theory of Continental Drift
## Footnote
It suggests that continents were once part of a supercontinent.
297
How does Wegener's theory suggest continents drifted apart?
Rock types and dinosaur species across continents
## Footnote
The continents fit together like a jigsaw puzzle.
298
Fill in the blank: The ________ is a zone of molten silicates and other minerals.
[mantle]
299
True or False: The asthenosphere is a rigid layer.
False
## Footnote
The asthenosphere is semi-molten.
300
What did Harry Hess study regarding the Atlantic Ocean?
The age of the rocks on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean
301
Where are the youngest rocks located in the Atlantic Ocean?
In the middle (Iceland)
302
Where are the oldest rocks located in the Atlantic Ocean?
Nearest the USA and Caribbean
303
What is the estimated rate of sea floor spreading?
5cm per year
304
What phenomenon confines the rate of sea floor spreading?
Paleomagnetism
305
How often does the earth's magnetic field switch polarity?
Every 400,000 years or so
306
What records the earth's magnetic orientation at the time of lava eruption?
Magnetic (Iron Oxide) in lava
307
What is indicated by mirror images patterns of switches or reversals on the sea floor?
Sea floor spreading from mid-ocean ridges
308
What is Ridge Push?
Gravitational sliding at mid-ocean ridges
309
What happens to magma at mid-ocean ridges?
It heats surrounding rocks and forms new rock that cools and becomes denser
310
What causes new rock to slide down the slope at mid-ocean ridges?
Gravity
311
What is Slab Pull?
A dominant theory explaining the movement of plates at a destructive margin
312
How can you tell that a subducting oceanic plate denser than the surrounding material at a destructive margin?
Because it sinks into the mantle
313
What effect does the sinking oceanic plate have on the rest of the plate?
It pulls the rest of the plate behind it
314
Fill in the blank: The process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges is called _______.
[Ridge Push]
315
True or False: Slab Pull has emerged as a less dominant theory over the last decade.
False
316
What direction do the plates move at a Divergent/Constructive plate margin
Away from each other
317
What direction do tectonic plates move in a Convergent/Destructive/Collision plate margin
Towards each other
318
What direction do tectonic plates move in a Transformer/Conservative plate boundary
Move in a parallel direction
319
What landforms can form at divergent/constructive plate boundaries
Rift Valleys, Mid Ocean Ridges, Volcanic Islands
320
What landforms can form at Convergant/Destructive plate boundaries
Deep Ocean Trenches, Island Arcs, Explosive Acid Volcanoes, Fold Mountains
321
Describe the formation of young fold mountains
- Occurs when 2 equal density continental crusts converge
- As they converge the pushing force causes the plates to move up into fold mountains
- Some material is forced downwards causing the mountain to form roots
322
Describe the formation of Rift Valleys
- As continental plates move apart they become brittle and start to fracture
- Sections of crust move apart causing the land in between the faults to collapse into deep wide valleys (called Graben), separated by upright blocs of Land (called horsts).
323
Describe the formation of Ocean Ridges
- At a constructive plate margin where 2 oceanic plates begin to move apart.
- This happens due to ridge push caused by mantle convection.
- This forms a ridge in the middle of the ocean and can cause earthquakes
324
Describe the formation of deep sea trenches
- Where an oceanic and continental plate meet, the denser oceanic plate is forced bellow the less dense continental one.
- This oceanic plate is further moved down by ridge push
- The down warping of this oceanic plate forms a deep trench beneath the ocean
325
Describe the formation of Island Arks
- Radiation from the earths core can cause the mantle to have a much larger temperature
- This allows it to break through the mantle forming “hot spots”
- When “hot spots” occur underwater mantle can cool to form a volcano
- If eruptions occur offshore a line of volcanic islands to form
326
Describe the formation of Volcanoes at a convergent plate margin
At the boundary when an oceanic plate subducts bellow a continental plate, the less dense continental plate rises and scrunches up into a fold/composite volcano
327
Describe the formation of Volcanoes at Constructive plate margins
At divergent boundaries, shield volcanoes form as large amounts of mantle exit the gap and cooling to form a shallow slopes shield volcano
328
Where do volcanoes tend to be found globally?
Volcanoes tend to surround the Pacific Plate around the 'Ring of Fire' on destructive and constructive margins with other plates.
329
What are the two types of plate margins where volcanoes occur?
Volcanoes occur on constructive and destructive margins.
330
What are hotspots in relation to volcano formation?
Hotspots are areas in the mantle where magma is warmer due to radioactive decay, causing volcanic activity.
331
What happens when a volcano occurs at a hotspot underwater?
It forms land on the surface as the magma burns through the crust.
332
How does the movement of tectonic plates affect volcano formation at hotspots?
As plates move, the crack in the crust moves with it, leading to the formation of new islands.
333
True or False: Volcanoes only occur at destructive margins.
False
334
What determines the severity of a volcanic hazard?
Multiple factors including magnitude, type of eruption, aerial extent, duration, and speed of onset.
## Footnote
Each of these factors contributes to the overall impact of a volcanic event.
335
How does the magnitude of a volcanic eruption affect damage?
It influences the extent of damage and the time available for the surrounding population to prepare.
## Footnote
Higher magnitude eruptions typically result in more significant damage and can catch populations off guard.
336
What is the impact of the type of eruption on volcanic hazards?
Different eruption types (gas, ash, lava, pyroclastic) lead to varying levels of human damage, with pyroclastic flows usually being more destructive than lava flows.
## Footnote
Pyroclastic flows can travel faster and are more deadly than lava flows.
337
What role does aerial extent play in volcanic hazards?
Large airborne ash clouds can restrict air travel and hinder aerial aid from other nations.
## Footnote
This can delay rescue and recovery efforts following a volcanic event.
338
How does the duration of a volcanic eruption affect its impact?
It influences the distance lava flows travel and the extent of damage, as well as the time required for recovery.
## Footnote
Longer eruptions may lead to more extensive damage and prolonged recovery periods.
339
What is the significance of the speed of onset in volcanic hazards?
It affects the response time needed to reduce casualties and minimize damage.
## Footnote
A rapid onset can lead to higher casualties as there is less time for evacuation.
340
What is the main measurement of volcanic magnitude?
VEI (Volcanic explosivity index)
## Footnote
The VEI is a logarithmic scale running from 0-8.
341
What is the characteristic of the Richter scale in relation to volcanic measurement?
Outdated, location specific, California centric
## Footnote
The Richter scale is not commonly used for volcanic hazards.
342
How can the frequency and regularity of eruptions be used in volcanic hazard assessment?
They indicate potential volcanic activity
## Footnote
Eruptions of Mount St Helens and Chances Peak, Montserrat, highlighted that dormant volcanoes can become active.
343
What factors affect the characteristics of magma?
Silica content and tectonic margin
## Footnote
Higher silica content leads to higher viscosity and more violent eruptions.
344
What type of volcano is formed at destructive margins?
Composite Volcano
## Footnote
These volcanoes have a higher cone shape and are more explosive.
345
What type of volcano is formed at constructive margins?
Shield Volcano
## Footnote
Shield volcanoes have gently sloped profiles and more gentle eruptions.
346
Fill in the blank: Higher silica contents lead to _______ viscosity.
higher
347
True or False: Volcanoes at constructive margins tend to be more explosive.
False
## Footnote
Explosive volcanoes are typically found at destructive margins.
348
What is a significant volcanic eruption event in 1980?
Eruption of Mount St Helens
## Footnote
This eruption challenged the notion of long-term dormancy.
349
What is a significant volcanic eruption event in 1995?
Eruption of Chances Peak, Montserrat
## Footnote
Similar to Mount St Helens, this eruption proved its previous dormancy was misleading.
350
What are tephra?
Fragments of rock produced when magma/rock is explosively ejected
## Footnote
Tephra can vary in size from 64mm diameter blocks/bombs to less than 2mm and can travel thousands of square kilometers.
351
What is the primary risk associated with lava flows?
Anything in the flow's path will be burnt, knocked over, buried, or melted
## Footnote
While deaths due to lava flows are uncommon, injury and localized risks do exist.
352
What characterizes pyroclastic events?
A high density mix of hot lava blocks, ash, and volcanic gases
## Footnote
These flows can travel at speeds of 50 mph and temperatures between 200-700 degrees Celsius.
353
What are the typical speeds and temperatures of pyroclastic flows?
Speeds of 50 mph at temperatures between 200-700 degrees Celsius
## Footnote
This makes pyroclastic flows highly dangerous to the surrounding area.
354
What types of gases can be emitted during a volcanic eruption?
Volcanic gases such as CO2
## Footnote
These gases can flow down the slopes of volcanoes and can be lethal to life but typically have no impact on infrastructure.
355
True or False: Ash poses a greater threat to life compared to lava flows.
False
## Footnote
Ash and tephra pose little threat to life compared to other primary effects of volcanic eruptions.
356
Fill in the blank: Pyroclastic flows consist of a mix of hot lava blocks, ash, and _______.
volcanic gases
357
What is the main effect of tephra on infrastructure?
Disruption to surrounding infrastructure
## Footnote
Tephra can travel over large areas, affecting various structures.
358
What is the viscosity of rock in relation to lava flows?
Differing viscosity affects the speed of lava flows
## Footnote
The viscosity determines how quickly lava can move, impacting its destructive potential.
359
What are lahars?
Unconsolidated ash from a recent eruption combined with water, forming a hot dense mudflow
## Footnote
Lahars can cause large scale devastation to areas surrounding volcanoes.
360
What is acid rain?
Rain caused by sulfur dioxide dissolved in rainwater
## Footnote
Acid rain can damage property surrounding the eruption and may cause potential health problems.
361
How do volcanic eruptions affect climate change?
Ash clouds can reduce the effect of the sun's rays, causing global temperatures to temporarily drop
## Footnote
This effect is global but typically has no huge long-term impact.
362
What can volcanic eruptions cause in areas with ice sheets?
Melting of ice sheets, leading to flooding and torrents of meltwater
## Footnote
This flooding can wash away land, agriculture, infrastructure, and properties, causing large scale damage.
363
What are tsunamis in relation to volcanic eruptions?
Sea waves generated by violent volcanic eruptions
## Footnote
An example is the tsunamis formed by Krakatoa in 1883, which caused significant damage to coastlines.
364
What type of eruption occurred at Lake Nyos?
Gas Eruption
## Footnote
Lake Nyos experienced a gas eruption characterized by the release of CO2 clouds denser than air.
365
When did the Lake Nyos gas eruption occur?
August 21st, 1986
## Footnote
This event led to the suffocation of villagers due to the dense CO2 cloud.
366
What caused the CO2 to emerge from Lake Nyos?
A landslide
## Footnote
The landslide triggered the release of gas clouds from fissures beneath the lake.
367
How many people were found dead after the Lake Nyos eruption?
606
## Footnote
This includes 6 individuals who suffocated in their sleep and 600 others later discovered deceased.
368
What type of eruption occurred at Krakatoa?
Pyroclastic Eruption
## Footnote
Krakatoa's eruption was marked by four large eruptions on August 27, 1883.
369
What natural disaster was caused by the Krakatoa eruption?
Tsunami
## Footnote
The pyroclastic flow from the eruption entered the ocean, generating a tsunami that traveled at 150 mph.
370
How many people were killed due to the Krakatoa eruption and its tsunami?
36,000
## Footnote
The tsunami caused significant loss of life following the eruption.
371
What type of eruptions does Kilauea produce?
Lava Eruptions
## Footnote
Kilauea is known as the world’s most active volcano and primarily produces lava.
372
What risk does Kilauea pose to life or infrastructure?
Little risk
## Footnote
Buildings are constructed away from the lava flows, minimizing damage.
373
In how many years is a new island likely to form from Kilauea?
60,000 years
## Footnote
This indicates the long-term geological processes involved in volcanic activity.
374
True or False: The eruptions at Kilauea regularly cause significant damage to nearby buildings.
False
## Footnote
Due to strategic building practices, Kilauea's eruptions do not typically damage infrastructure.
375
What event led to the evacuation of almost 60,000 people in the Philippines in 1991?
Continuous ash eruptions at Piratebo
## Footnote
This was one of the largest eruptions in the 20th century.
376
What natural phenomena accompanied the volcanic eruptions at Piratebo?
Repeated earthquakes and pyroclastic flows
## Footnote
These did not result in fatalities.
377
What was the primary cause of the 320 deaths during the Piratebo eruption?
Strong mudflows/lahars destroying and burying properties
## Footnote
Structural issues caused by earthquakes contributed to the devastation.
378
What is an essential preparation step for volcanic events?
Predictions and practice evacuations
## Footnote
Monitoring systems can provide warnings for early evacuation.
379
What is the purpose of lava control technology, as seen in Eyajaffukol?
To save people, infrastructure, and properties from damage
## Footnote
This helps to minimize the overall damage during an eruption.
380
When lava control is not possible, what is a recommended option?
Evacuation
## Footnote
This remains a viable strategy to ensure safety.
381
What adaptation strategies can help reduce damage from volcanic eruptions?
Differing building design and zoning
## Footnote
These strategies can lower death tolls and costs associated with eruptions.
382
When did Mount Etna erupt in 2002-2003?
Late night of October 26th 2002
## Footnote
This eruption was aggressive and had a huge impact on the surroundings.
383
Where is Mount Etna located?
East coast of Sicily in the Metropolitan City of Catania
## Footnote
It is known as Europe’s most active volcano.
384
What geological feature contributes to Mount Etna's activity?
Convergent plate boundary
## Footnote
The African plate subducts below the Eurasian plate.
385
What type of volcano is Mount Etna primarily classified as?
Shield volcano and explosive composite volcano
## Footnote
The bottom is a shield volcano, while the upper section is an explosive composite volcano.
386
What happens as pressure from plate subduction increases?
The volcano begins to erupt
## Footnote
This leads to the frequent eruptions of Mount Etna.
387
How do locals perceive Mount Etna?
As a mother figure, often called 'Mama Etna'
## Footnote
This reflects a sense of family and harmony with the volcano.
388
What significance do some people attribute to Mount Etna?
Religious significance
## Footnote
Lava flows have avoided religious statues, which gives Christians faith in its consciousness.
389
Why do residents rarely see Mount Etna as a threat?
Regular eruptions cause little damage
## Footnote
Lava flows do not typically harm agricultural areas.
390
What type of jobs do many people in the area of Mount Etna hold?
Lower paying primary sector jobs
## Footnote
This is influenced by the land use and agricultural activities in the region.
391
How many volcanic sensors were present on Mount Etna?
78 volcanic sensors
## Footnote
This regulation helps monitor volcanic activity.
392
What date did the 2002-2003 Mount Etna eruption occur?
Late on October 26th, 2002
## Footnote
This eruption led to a range of significant impacts.
393
How many people were forced to flee their homes due to the 2002-2003 Mount Etna eruption?
1000
## Footnote
This evacuation was a direct result of the eruption's social impact.
394
What type of infrastructure was damaged during the 2002-2003 Mount Etna eruption?
Transport infrastructure
## Footnote
Streets were coated in clouds of ash.
395
Which areas of Mount Etna were most affected by the 2002-2003 eruption?
South and north east sides
## Footnote
The southern villages experienced a slightly larger impact.
396
What happened to a BBC film crew during the eruption?
They were badly injured by volcanic bombs and pyroclastic material
## Footnote
This incident highlights the dangers posed by volcanic eruptions.
397
Were church gatherings affected during the 2002-2003 Mount Etna eruption?
No, many church gatherings still took place
## Footnote
The church remained open during the eruptions.
398
What happened to old tourist buildings after the 2002-2003 Mount Etna eruption?
They were replaced with new movable tourist buildings
## Footnote
This was part of the economic impact of the eruption.
399
What was the name of the restaurant that was destroyed and rebuilt after the 1983 eruption?
La Cantoniera
## Footnote
It had to be rebuilt in the same area after its destruction.
400
What impact did the eruption have on agricultural land?
Agricultural land was damaged
## Footnote
This affected many people's livelihoods.
401
What geological feature formed as a result of the 2002-2003 Mount Etna eruption?
Lava tubes
## Footnote
These formed in the surrounding area.
402
What long-term effect did the 2002-2003 Mount Etna eruption have on soil fertility?
Increase in soil fertility
## Footnote
The ash and material covered green areas, contributing to this effect.
403
What action did local authorities take in response to the 2002-2003 Mount Etna eruption?
Zoned areas in terms of their safety
## Footnote
This was part of the political impact of the eruption.
404
