Hamilton & Gifford

Question 1

What are illusory correlations?

Answer 1

-refers to unrelated clinical concepts that are seen as related because they were expected to relate to each other

Question 2

How did Hamilton and Gifford use the concept of illusory correlations?

Answer 2

• minority group members are by definition rare
• undesirable behaviour is distinct
• negative behaviour by minority group members is thus doubly distinct and therefore particularly attention grabbing
• attention grabbing gets stored in memory

Question 3

What was the procedure of the first study?

Answer 3

• 39 statements described positive/negative behaviours shown by member of group A or B
• 26 statements for A, 13 for B
• 27 statements on positive behaviour, 12 on negative
• 9:4 ratio for both:
• 18 desirable for A, 9 desirable for B
• 8 undesirable for A, 4 undesirable for B

Question 4

What were the theoretical assumptions and hypothesis of the first study?

Answer 4

• rare/distinct characteristics are better remembered
• minority members of group B are rare (13 vs 26)
• undesirable behaviour is more distinct

Question 5

What were the different measurements of the first study?

Answer 5

• assignment task: asked whether the behaviour was shown by member of A or B
• frequency estimation: how many negative behaviours were performed by group A or B
• assignment and frequency test how well they recall what they saw
• trait ratings: group A and B are rated on number of trait dimensions (tests stereotype judgement and overgeneralisation of statement from memory)

Question 6

What were the different measurement findings of the first study?
(real distribution in parentheses)

Answer 6

• assignment estimate: 17.52 (18) desirable for A, 9.48 (9) desirable for B, 5.79 (8) undesirable for A, 6.21 (4) undesirable for B, so reasonably accurate for desirable but not undesirable (believed group B (minority group) showed more negative than A)
• frequency estimate: 17.09 (18) desirable for A, 7.27 (9) desirable for B, 8.91 (8) undesirable for A, 5.73 (4) undesirable for B

Question 7

What was the reason for holding the second study?

Answer 7

• in the first study found that undesirable behaviour is rare, testing if it was due to statistical infrequency or if undesirable behaviours are more threatening to the individual so gain more attention
• investigating whether undesirable behaviour is distinct

Question 8

What was the procedure of the second study?

Answer 8

• same as study 1 but undesirable behaviour is the common behaviour instead
• so desired behaviour is more distinct and should be remembered more
• ratio of statements is 2:1 instead

Question 9

What were the results of the second study?

real distribution in parentheses

Answer 9

• assignment estimate: 5.87 (8) desirable for A, 6.13 (4) desirable for B, 15.71 (16) undesirable for A, 8.29 (8) undesirable for B
• shows that statistically infrequent behaviour is more frequently remembered for the minority group

Question 10

What was the methodological criticism?

Answer 10

• external validity: debate whether we encounter groups we know nothing on other than individual member’s actions, random assortment of behaviours and making overall judgement is different to having specific (rather than positive/negative evaluation) stereotypes
• mere exposure (Zajonc, 1968): greater frequency of A members leads to familiarity thus leading to liking, though this can’t account for study 2 and can’t explain illusory correlation since it only accounts for over-estimation of majority/positive

Question 11

What was the conceptual criticism?

Answer 11

• distinctiveness may not be key explanatory feature but rather skewed distribution combined with statistical infrequency
• Fiedler (1991/1996): random information loss is likely due to large amount that need to be remembered and the loss will disadvantage small groups
• Smith (1991): focus on absolute number creates overly positive/negative impression but this isn’t supported by findings
• (meaning-based explanation) McGarty et al (1993): participants try to find out how groups differ to help operate in complex environment, support to see A as positive but not B
• follow up study (Haslam et al (1996) that told them there was a difference found no illusory correlation effect so it only exists when they are trying to create meaning

Question 12

How did it lead to further research?

Answer 12

• Hamilton and Sherman (1996) showed White Americans overestimate arrest rate of African Americans
• start of cognitive revolution in social psychology as it’s key example of social cognitive approach
• most widely cited account of stereotype formation but meaning based explanations suggest a purely cognitive explanation falls short