Gynaecological Problems Flashcards
What is the prevalence of PCOS when defined by the Rotterdam Criteria compared with the National Institutes of Health criteria?
a. Equivalent
b. 2x
c. 3x
d. 4x
e. 5x
B - 2x
PCOS should be diagnosed in UK practice according to the Rotterdam criteria which requires the presence of any 2 of the following 3 criteria:
• Polycystic appearance of the ovaries on scan, either:
o Total ovarian volume >10cm3
o 12 or more follicles
• Clinical and/or biochemical evidence of hyperandrogenism
• Oligo- or an-ovulation
Unsurprisingly, this leads to more diagnoses (roughly twice as many) than the previously used American National Institutes of Health (NIH) criteria which did not include consideration of ultrasound appearances, relying on clinical and biochemical findings alone. Even with such diagnostic criteria, the exact prevalence of PCOS is uncertain with estimates ranging from 2-26%.
The recommended baseline test for hyperandrogenism is the free androgen index, how is this calculated?
a. LH/FSH x 100
b. Free Testosterone/Total Testosterone ratio
c. Free Testosterone/SHBG ratio
d. LH/SHBG ratio
e. Total testosterone/SHBG x 100
E - Total testosterone/SHBG x 100
Older texts may reference the LH:FSH ratio as an important investigation in diagnosing PCOS (>2:1 being considered significant) although the ‘gold standard’ in modern practice is the free-androgen index. This is expressed as a ratio of total testosterone to SHBG multiplied by 100.
2 of the 3 Rotterdam criteria are required for diagnosis of PCOS, once component of which is a polycystic appearance of the ovaries on USS. This may be defined by follicle count or volume. What are the diagnostic parameters for each?
Follicle Count Ovarian Volume
a. 8 or more >12cm3
b. 8 or more >10cm3
c. 10 or more >10cm3
d. 12 or more >10cm3
e. 12 or more >12cm3
D - 12 or more follicles; >10cm3 total volume
While pelvic ultrasound reports may commonly include a vague comment regarding a ‘polycystic appearance’ to the ovaries, there are infact firm criteria for such a diagnosis in the context of PCOS – either >12 follicles or a total ovarian volume of >10cm3
A 19 year old patient is referred to the gynaecology outpatient clinic with suspected PCOS with a history of highly irregular menstrual cycles since menarche aged 14. On examination you note severe facial and bodily hirsuitism, under-developed breast tissue and cliteromegaly. The patient’s voice is also noted to be rather deep for a women of this age. Bloods are requested in order to calculate the free-androgen index and total testosterone levels are noted to be markedly elevated at 6.8. What test is indicated here?
a. SHBG during luteal phase
b. ACTH stimulation test
c. Free testosterone during luteal phase
d. 17-hydroxyprogesterone during follicular phase
e. LH levels on day 2
D - 17 hydroxyprogesterone during the follicular phase
The patient in the scenario has numerous clinical and biochemical features which may indicate an underlying adrenal tumour or late-onset congenital adrenal hyperplasia. PCOS may well be the underlying diagnosis though these conditions carry considerably greater implications and thus warrant exclusion as a priority. The next logical test here would be 17-hydroxyprogesterone levels taken during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle. While an ACTH stimulation test may similarly be used, this is usually reserved for borderline results.
Which of the following has not been proven to be directly associated with PCOS:
a. Weight gain
b. Acne
c. Hirsuitism
d. Anovulatory infertility
e. Oligomenorrhoea
E - Weight gain
There is often an association made between PCOS and increased BMI (>50% of patients with PCOS are thought to be overweight/obese) however there is no firm evidence that PCOS in itself causes weight gain or indeed makes weight loss any more difficult. Lifestyle modifications, including weight loss, form a cornerstone of PCOS and should be considered first line.
What percentage of women with PCOS display biochemical evidence of insulin resistance?
a. 8-12%
b. 15-20%
c. 25-40%
d. 45-60%
e. 65-80%
E - 65-80%
Insulin resistance is present in around 65–80% of women with PCOS, independent of obesity, and is further exacerbated by excess weight. Insulin resistance has been shown to worsen reproductive and metabolic features, type II diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk in PCOS. The highest incidence of metabolic abnormalities is seen in women with marked hyperandrogenism and anovulation.
Women with PCOS who fall pregnant are advised to undergo a GTT in the third trimester. What is the prevalence of GDM in a PCOS population compared with the general population?
a. Twice as high
b. Three times as high
c. Four times as high
d. Five times as high
e. Ten times as high
A - Twice as high
Prevalence of gestational diabetes is twice as high in those with PCOS who become pregnant than in general population controls. All patients should undergo a GTT at 24-28 weeks gestation.
A 39 year old with a background of PCOS presents to her GP complaining of feeling tired and thirsty all the time. She undergoes a 75g 2 hour oral glucose tolerance test which returns the following result:
Fasting Glucose: 4.1
2 hours post-glucose: 8.1
When, if appropriate, should this test be repeated?
a. No indication to repeat
b. 6-monthly
c. Annually
d. 2-yearly
e. 3-yearly
C - Annually
All patients with PCOS who are overweight (BMI >25) or who are normal weight though with additional risk factors for diabetes (i.e. family history, aged >40, personal history of GDM), should undergo an oral glucose tolerance test, normal values for which are as follows:
Fasting glucose:
o Normal: <6.1
o Impaired: 6.1 – 6.9
o Diabetes: >6.9
2 hours:
o Normal: <7.8
o Impaired: 7.8 – 11.1
o Diabetes: >11.1
The results in the question given are consistent with impaired glucose tolerance (raised 2 hour glucose, normal fasting) and thus the test should be repeat annually as per guidelines. The same applies if fasting glucose is elevated above normal but below the threshold for diagnosis of diabetes.
Which of the following conditions is not known to be associated with PCOS?
a. Cardiovascular disease
b. Ovarian cancer
c. Depression
d. Endometrial cancer
e. Diabetes
B - Ovarian cancer
Cardiovascular disease risk is greater in women with PCOS related primarily to insulin resistance and obesity, though high androgens and low SHBG have also been linked. Similarly rates of endometrial hyperplasia and malignancy are increased, secondary to higher numbers of anovulatory cycles. Insulin resistance is found in up to 80% of those with PCOS and both type 2 and gestational diabetes are more prevalent than in the general population. Women with PCOS are at an increased risk of psychological issues including depression and anxiety and these should be routinely screened for. There is no link with PCOS and ovarian or breast cancer.
How often is progesterone treatment advised to induce a withdrawal bleed in women with amenorrhoeic PCOS?
a. Monthly
b. Every 3-4 months
c. Every 5-6 months
d. Every 9 months
e. Annually
B - Every 3-4 months
Oligo- and amenorrhoea seen in patients with PCOS, together with pre-menopausal levels of circulating oestrogens, may pre-dispose to endometrial hyperplasia and malignancy. There is no clear guidance on the optimum regimen for reducing this risk, though as a minimum, induction of a withdrawal bleed every 3-4 months with progestogens is advised. Alternatives include use of the COCP to achieve a monthly bleed, or on-going endometrial protection with a Mirena IUS.
At what BMI should women with PCOS and concurrent cardiovascular disease be considered for bariatric surgery?
a. 35
b. 40
c. 45
d. 50
e. >50
A - 35
Patients with refractory obesity may be considered for bariatric surgery. This may be considered in those with a BMI >40, or >35 if concurrent high-risk obesity related disease (e.g. hypertension, cardiovascular disease or diabetes)
At what size should an ovarian cyst in a post-menopausal women be considered significant?
a. >1cm
b. >3cm
c. >4cm
d. >5cm
e. Any size
A - >1cm
Any ovarian cyst >1cm in a postmenopausal women requires further evaluation to determine the risk of malignancy. Cystic lesions smaller than 1 cm are clinically inconsequential and it is at the discretion of the reporting clinician whether or not to describe them in the imaging report as they do not need follow-up.
A 62 year old woman undergoing a CT scan during an acute admission with diverticulitis is noted to have a 4cm right sided ovarian cyst. The scan makes no further comment on the character though notes that there is no obvious evidence of extra-ovarian disease. What is the next step:
a. MRI pelvis and Ca125
b. USS and Ca125
c. Ca125
d. Ca125, CEA, hCG and AFP
e. USS and Ca125, hCG and AFP
B - USS and Ca125
Calculation of RMI is the first step in assessing the malignant potential of a post-menopausal cyst. This requires both measurement of Ca125 and ultrasound assessment. Where the initial imaging modality was a CT scan, unless this clearly indicates ovarian cancer and widespread intra-abdominal disease, ultrasound is indicated.
A 56 year old patient attends the gynaecology clinic complaining of bloating and unexplained weight loss. A bimanual examination performed in the clinic is unremarkable. What is the sensitivity of clinical examination in the detection of ovarian masses?
a. No greater than 25%
b. No greater than 33%
c. No greater than 51%
d. No greater that 65%
e. No greater than 83%
C - No greater than 51%
Although clinical examination has poor sensitivity in the detection of ovarian masses (15–51%), its importance lies in the evaluation of any palpable mass for tenderness and mobility.
In what percentage of epithelial ovarian tumours will Ca125 be elevated?
a. 50%
b. 60%
c. 75%
d. 80%
e. 90%
D - 80%
Ca125 is primary a marker of epithelial cancer and is elevated in around 80% of such tumours and infact is seldom elevated in most primary mucinous tumours. Numerous non-gynaecological and benign conditions are also known to elevate Ca125. The upper limit of normal (35) represents the 99th centile in a study of almost 900 healthy individuals.
A 4cm unilateral simple ovarian cyst is diagnosed in a 56 year postmenopausal patient during investigation for PMB. Ca125 is within normal limits at 26. You explain that surveillance of the cyst is advised though reassure her that the likelihood of malignancy is low. What is the likelihood of the cyst disappearing in that time?
a. ~10%
b. ~25%
c. ~33%
d. ~50%
e. ~75%
D - 50%
95-99% of simple ovarian cysts are benign. When followed up for 2 years, typical behaviour of <5cm simple cysts is as follows: • 53% disappear completely • 28% stay the same • 11% increase in size • 3% decrease in size though persist • 6% fluctuate
A 4cm unilateral simple ovarian cyst is diagnosed in a 56 year postmenopausal patient during investigation for PMB. Ca125 is within normal limits at 26. You explain that surveillance of the cyst is advised though reassure her that the likelihood of malignancy is low. What is the likelihood of the cyst enlarging in that time?
a. 11%
b. 15%
c. 23%
d. 33%
e. 40%
A - 11%
95-99% of simple ovarian cysts are benign. When followed up for 2 years, typical behaviour of <5cm simple cysts is as follows: • 53% disappear completely • 28% stay the same • 11% increase in size • 3% decrease in size though persist • 6% fluctuate
What percentage of borderline ovarian masses appear simple on USS?
a. <5%
b. 10%
c. 20%
d. 30%
e. 40%
C - 20%
When undertaking surgery for any ovarian mass, the potential diagnosis of a borderline tumour should be considered. When such a diagnosis is made or suspected, referral to a gynaecology oncology centre is recommended. Radiography and serum markers pre-op are relatively insensitive to such a diagnosis and infact 20% will appear as simple cysts on ultrasound. The majority however will display some suspect features on scan.
A 65 year old patient is reviewed in the 2WW clinic with bilateral ovarian masses and a raised Ca-125. Calculation of the RMI returns a score of >200. What is the most appropriate next stage in management?
a. Refer to MDT
b. CT abdomen and pelvis
c. MRI abdomen and pelvis
d. List for open TAH+BSO
e. Arrange other tumour markers – CEA, hCG and AFP
B - CT abdomen and pelvis
All patients with an RMI >200 should undergo a CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis. While referral to MDT is also prudent, knowledge of the CT scan is required to facilitate that discussion and thus should occur first. MRI is useful in the context of equivocal ultrasound findings though has little role here. Ca125 is the only tumour marker indicated in assessment of the post-menopausal woman. While in all likelihood the patient will require a laparotomy (inclusive of TAH and BSO), further workup is required first.
A 58 year old patient presents to the clinic with the finding of bilateral, apparently simple ovarian masses on scan measuring 9 and 8cm respectively. Ca125 is normal at 25 and there are no other concerning features on scan. She is understandably in some discomfort however and is keen to discuss management. What is the most appropriate treatment in this case?
a. Conservative – repeat USS in 6 months
b. Aspiration of cysts under USS guidance
c. Laparotomy, TAH and BSO with omental biopsy
d. Laparoscopic BSO
e. Arrange MRI and MDT discussion
D - Laparoscopic BSO
The RMI here is only 75 suggesting a low probability of malignancy (the fact that the cysts are bilateral is the only feature of note). This patient is therefore suitable for laparoscopic management. In postmenopausal women there is no merit in attempting ovarian conservation and a bilateral oophorectomy should be performed.
A 67 year old patient with multiple co-morbidities is found to have a persistent 10cm simple cyst on her right ovary which causes some discomfort. Ca125 is normal and RMI <200. She is reviewed by the anaesthetic team and it is felt that she is unfit for surgery. She enquires about aspiration of the cyst. What is the likelihood of recurrence in patients undergoing aspiration of ovarian cysts?
a. 25%
b. 33%
c. 50%
d. 60%
e. 75%
A - 25%
Aspiration of ovarian cysts in postmenopausal women is not recommended except for symptom control in those with advanced malignancy unfit for surgery or other intervention. Diagnostic cytological examination of cyst fluid is infact poor at differentiating between benign and malignant and even where a benign cyst is aspirated, 25% will recur within 1 year.
What proportion of the adult female population are affected by chronic pelvic pain?
a. 1 in 6
b. 1 in 8
c. 1 in 10
d. 1 in 12
e. 1 in 20
A - 1 in 6
Chronic pelvic pain is common, affecting perhaps one in six of the adult female population. Much remains unclear about its aetiology, but chronic pelvic pain should be seen as a symptom with a number of contributory factors rather than as a diagnosis in itself.
What is the incidence of nerve entrapment occurring after one Pffanenstiel incision?
a. 1.5%
b. 3.7%
c. 7.8%
d. 10.1%
e. 20.4%
B - 3.7%
The incidence of nerve entrapment (defined as highly localised, sharp, stabbing or aching pain, exacerbated by particular movements, and persisting beyond 5 weeks or occurring after a pain-free interval) after one Pfannenstiel incision is 3.7%.
What proportion of bowel/bladder injuries at laparoscopy require laparotomy to repair?
a. 1/4
b. 1/3
c. 1/2
d. 2/3
e. 3/4
D - 2/3
Diagnostic laparoscopy is the only test capable of reliably diagnosing peritoneal endometriosis and adhesions. Gynaecologists have therefore seen it as an essential tool in the assessment of women with chronic pelvic pain. However, it carries significant risks: an estimated risk of death of approximately 1 in 10 000, and a risk of injury to bowel, bladder or blood vessel of approximately 2.4 in 1000, of whom two-thirds will require laparotomy.