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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is biological oceanography

A

• The study of life in the ocean
– distribution and abundance of marine species
– processes that govern spread and development
• A range of scales
– smallest microbes to largest whales
– Submesoscale processes to the global ocean
• Passive movement thru to behaviour

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2
Q

East Australian Current

A 
• Warm saline water;
• Has spent 2 years crossing the Pacific
Ocean to Australia;
• An oligotrophic ocean – “no nutrients”
• Unstable; wobbles and eddies
• Australia has the 3rd largest fishing zone
and the 55th largest fishery!
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3
Q

Fronts as Ocean Oases

A

• Boundaries between distinct water masses with sharp
gradients in temperature or salinity
• Increase patchiness through flow convergence and
increase vertical mixing and nutrient supply
• Overlap of prey and predators can be immense
• Cascade of impacts across multiple scales from local
prey size structure to global biogeochemical fluxes.
• PP is considered to set the limits of fishery production
and drive ecosystem functioning
• Patchiness may be the main regulator of production

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4
Q

Tasman Front influences biological communities in

many ways- 6 points

A

• Connectivity and dispersal of coastal organisms
(Roughan et al., 2011, Everett et al. 2017)
• Genetic structure of sea-urchin populations (Banks
et al., 2007)
• Microbial community composition (Seymour et al., 2012)
• Distribution of fisheries such as southern bluefin
tuna (Hobday and Hartmann, 2006, Schilling et al. 2017)
• Diet of top predator species (Revill et al., 2009)
• Size-structure of zooplankton communities (Baird et
al., 2008, White et al. 2018)

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5
Q

Continental Shelves

A

• 363 million square kilometres of ocean
• Make up less than 7% (< 200 m depth)
• Generate the biological production
supporting over 90% of global fish catches
• Directly contribute 75 % of fish catch
• In particular Eastern and Western Boundary
Current systems

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6
Q

how many new chemicals made each day

A

15k

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7
Q

how many chemicals tested for saftey

A

less than 0.3%

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8
Q

define plastic

A

Definition
• Polymers made from synthetic resins
• Moulded during manufacture
• Pass through ‘plastic states’ during processing

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9
Q

Contamination

A

• presence of alien materials in environment

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10
Q

Pollution

A

biological or ecological response to contaminant

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11
Q

Critically & systematically assessed quality of studies

A

logic, interpretation, experimental design & statistical analysis

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12
Q

PLASTIC CAUSED 74% DEMONSTRATED BIOLOGICAL

IMPACTS OF MICRODEBRIS examples

A
  • Subatomic particle: oxidative stress (7/7)
  • Atom: greater concentrations of calcium (2/2)
  • Small molecule: toxic metabolites (4/4)
  • Macromolecule: protein, DNA damage (67/74)
  • Organelle: more micronucleii (7/12)
  • Cells: necrosis, reduced immunity, less viable cells (45/54)
  • Tissue: inflammation, fibrosis (25/29)
  • Organ: change in size, lesions (6/8)
  • Organ system: malfunctioning digestive system (5/7)
  • Organism: death (4/11)
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13
Q

WHAT PLASTIC DEBRIS CAUSE ECOLOGICAL

IMPACTS IN MARINE HABITATS?

A

Plastic bottles
• Altering assemblage: soft-bottom benthic habitats
• Adding more organisms & species;

Derelict fishing gear
• Smothering coral assemblage
• Causing mortality: species of corals & associated fauna

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14
Q

tonnes of plastic entering marine environment each year

A

8 million

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15
Q

Largest country waste output

A

Asia

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16
Q

CAN DATA-SYNTHESES PROVIDE GLOBAL PICTURE?

OF CONTAMINATION

A
  • Spatial scale: many small, few large

* Incompatible data: metrics & methods

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17
Q

BETTER METHODS, SURVEYS & EXPERIMENTS

A
  • Generality of patterns across metrics, habitats & locations
  • Material flow studies: stocks & flows (season & weather)
  • Mircoplastic: procedural vs environmental contamination
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18
Q

% of plastic as microplastic

A

65

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19
Q

over last 65 years microplastic in the ocean has increased by

A

450%

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20
Q

Where does microplastic come from?

A

fragments- not granular

polyester, acrylic and nylon fibres

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21
Q

Australian sewage

A

more than 70000 litres per person

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22
Q

Sydney harbour storm water

A

more than 420000 litres per year

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23
Q

habitats that contain sewage sludge contain

A

250% more plastic fibres

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24
Q

Sewage effluent

A

contaminated with fibres

polyester, acrylic, polyamide

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25
Q

plastic cloth fibres

A

mainly fleeces

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26
Q

downwind habitats

A

over 500% more fibres

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27
Q

NOVEL METHODS TO ASSESS THE ABUNDANCE,

VOLUME & MASS OF MICROPLASTIC

A 
Measure	volume:	
• image-analysis	
Identity	polymer:		
• vibrational	spectroscopy	
Combine	data	to	estimate	mass:	
• volume		
• published	polymer-densities
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28
Q

Confounded analyses

A
  • Blanks not representative
  • Data unbalanced
  • Data not independent
  • No statistical tests
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29
Q

baking polymers

A

at 500degreesC reduces their mass and spectral composition

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30
Q

New frameworks for plastic analysis

A 
• Metal	containers		
• Thermal	treatment	to		
decompose	procedural	
polymers	
Robust	analyses	
• Representative	blanks	
• Balanced	independent	data	
• Statistical	tests
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31
Q

SHORES RECEIVING STORMWATER FROM DENSELY

POPULATED AREAS:

A

> 50% FEWER SPECIES

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32
Q

tracer studies reveal

A 
microplastic can bioaccumulate in gut
• Transfers	to	haemocytes	
Stored	in	tissues	&amp;	cells	
• Difficult	to	detoxify	
(>months)
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33
Q

Priority pollutants

A
  • 78% US

* 61% EU

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34
Q

Plastics sorb pollutants at concentrations

A
  • 100 times: sediments

* 1 million times: water

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35
Q

> 40 years speculation but only correlative evidence

A

• CAN MICROPLASTIC MOVE CHEMICALS INTO
TISSUES OF ANIMALS?
• DOES THIS DEGRADE FUCTIONS THAT MAINTAIN
HEALTH & BIODIVERSITY?

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36
Q

CASE STUDY plastics

A

ecosystem engineering worms
EVIDENCE MICROPLASTIC MOVES CHEMICALS INTO TISSUES
Healthy worms maintain diversity by eating sediments

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37
Q

HELPING GOVERNMENTS TO MAKE EVIDENCEBASED

DECISIONS

A 
Chlorofluorocarbons	
Persistent	organic	pollutants		
reclassified	as	hazardous		
• Montreal	Protocol	1989		
• Stockholm	Convention	2004	
Existing	policy	&amp;	law	
• US	EPA	CERCLA/SUPERFUND	
• EU	Directive	2008/98/EC
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38
Q

POLICY: POLLUTANT

A

ANY MATTER THAT CAN CAUSE
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL & BIOLOGICAL CHANGE IN WATERS
OR HARMS AQUATIC LIFE

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39
Q

OPTIONS FOR MANAGING PROBLEMS

A

analysis and synthesis–> scope of problem
surveys–> options for managing the problem–> choose actions to solve the problem
experiments–> was the problem solved?
no? new theories and understanding
yes? back to the start

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40
Q

plastic policy 4 points

A

avoid
intercept
clean-up
redesign

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41
Q

Artificial Structures

A 
Loss and/or fragmentation of natural habitats
Alter flow and sediment deposition
Shaded structures
Vertical and homogeneous surfaces
Invasive species
42
Q

Landscape connectivity

A

involves the movement of organisms and resources across the landscape- links organisms through predator-prey interactions. Happens on multiple scales and resources

43
Q

Artificial structures

A

act as barriers to movement of organisms are resources- impermeable or semi permeable

44
Q

ECOLOGICAL

ENGINEERING

A

Eco-engineering is the attempt to combine
engineering principles with ecological
processes to reduce environmental impacts
from built infrastructure.

45
Q

IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS

A

(I) THE REGION WHERE SPECIES ARE CURRENTLY
SITUATED
(II) THEIR ADAPTIVE POTENTIAL TO PERSIST AND
FUNCTION UNDER PREDICTED ENVIRONMENTAL
AND ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
(III) INTERACTIONS BETWEEN GLOBAL AND LOCAL
STRESSORS, E.G. CLIMATE CHANGE AND
CONTAMINATION.

46
Q

PHYSICAL MODIFICATIONS

A 
ADDITION OF WATER RETAINING FEATURES
CREATION OF CLIMATE REFUGIA
MATERIAL THAT INCREASE ALBEDO
ECOLOGICAL CORRIDORS
(ASSISTED MIGRATION)
FLEXIBLE STRUCTURES
47
Q

BIOLOGICAL MODIFICATIONS

A 
SEEDING KEY SPECIES
(VIABLE OR GENETICALLY SELECTED)
‘DESIGNED’ ASSEMBLAGES
(TRAIT-BASED MODELS)
‘GARDENING’ STRUCTURES
48
Q

HOW TO DECIDE? on how to ecoengineer

A

(1) Conservation and managerial goals
(2) The habitat in which strategies are being
implemented
(3) The biogeographical location
(4) The socio-economic circumstances at the
time of intervention
(5) The ecological risks and uncertainties
associated with the proposed approach

49
Q

What is Fishery Enhancement

A

‘FE’ is the manipulation of the marine environment to enhance
or restore fisheries in natural systems

50
Q

How is FE done?

A

1) Manipulating the target organism (Stock Enhancement,
translocations)
2) Manipulating the habitat (Artificial Reefs, FADs, habitat
restoration)
3) Manipulating the foodweb (artificial feeding, nutrient
fertilisation, predator control)

51
Q

FE in develloped countries

A

for conservation and recreation; based

more on preserving natural environmen

52
Q

FE in undevelloped countries

A

In developing countries: for income and food; based more on
intensive production

53
Q

Who is doing FE?

A

‐ Government agencies (e.g. NSW DPI: fish stocking and
artificial reefs)
‐ Commercial industry (e.g. reefs for abalone fishers; FADs for
tuna fishers)
‐ Artisanal fisheries in developing countries

54
Q

Why is FE different to aquaculture

A

it focuses on the natural environment

but often relies on aquaculture technologies

55
Q

What is SE- stock enhancment

A

he release of hatchery
reared animals to supplement
wild supply

56
Q

Why is SE used

A 
1) to increase biomass of the 
species for later harvest (e.g. 
prawns, mulloway in Aus.)    
2) for conservation/restoration 
of the species (e.g. murray cod)
SE is now done on a very large 
scale (majority in freshwater), in 
~100 countries
57
Q

The process of SE

A
  1. Select a target species
  2. Collect wild breeding animals
  3. Induce spawning
  4. Grow up larvae until certain
    age (juveniles)
  5. Release juveniles in to wild (if
    released into altered habitats,
    it’s called ‘sea ranching’)
  6. Return at some point to
    harvest adults
58
Q

What are some risks of SE?

A
  • Reduce genetic diversity (inbreeding); domestication
  • Exceed carrying capacity
  • Alter foodwebs (e.g. increase predation)
  • Introduce diseases
  • Waste of fish/money (no real benefits)
59
Q

How to manage risks of SE

A

• Reduce genetic diversity (inbreeding); domestication
 Use sufficient broodstock; monitor genetic diversity;
only use broodstock from stocking locations
• Exceed carrying capacity
 Estimate stocking density (modelling)
• Alter foodwebs
 Consider requirements of prey, competitors etc. in
modelling (but can be difficult to predict and thus avoid)
• Introduce diseases
Waste of fish/money (no real benefits)
 Bio‐economic modelling; careful balancing of stocking
small fish (high mortality) with stocking larger fish (high
cost)
 Encourage wild behaviours in hatchery fish – ‘life‐skills
training’ to improve survival
 Thorough disease testing in hatchery

60
Q

artificial reefs

A 
Another common Fishery 
Enhancement tool is artificial 
reefs. These are variously 
deployed for:
• Tourism
 sunken vessels
• Conservation 
 re‐seeding coral reefs?
 anti‐trawler function
• Enhance production/fishing
 Designed reefs
 Can be used for commercial harvest
main goal- produce fish
61
Q

Combining ARs with stock

enhancement

A 
Greenlip Abalone in 
Augusta W.A., grown 
in a hatchery, stocked 
on custom ‘abitats’, 
then harvested ~12 
months later 
This ‘sea ranching’  
may be a big use for 
ARs in the future
62
Q

How do ARs work

A 
• Hopefully, they provide food and shelter, which promotes 
residency and ‘fish production’
• But it’s thought behavioural responses (thigmotaxis) also occur, 
which do not promote production
• This variety of processes complicates the monitoring of ARs 
• The trade‐off between these processes is often termed 
‘production versus attraction
Re‐schooling
Sociality
Rest
Food
Space (survival and food)
Attraction, 
with little 
benefit to 
survival or 
growth
63
Q

Attrection artificial reefs

A

 attraction is the redistribution of existing fish
 if attraction exists, then a fished AR can have a negative impact
 because an AR gives anglers a ‘better target’
 below, production = 2 fish, but harvest increased by 4 fish
 to manage this issue, we need to measure production & harvest

64
Q

Production AR

A

 Production & Attraction are very difficult to distinguish
 Production may take time to occur, and may operate indirectly
through biota like seaweed
 Fishing may also change locations, so what is overall change in
harvest?

65
Q

why is it so important to distinguish between production and attraction
way to find if P

A

 visual surveys (ok)
 fish tracking (good)
 food web or ecosystem modelling (great)

66
Q

On sydney AR

The research and monitoring is focused on:

A

1) Which species are using the reef?
2) How much fish production is occurring?
This is being answered using:
1) Visual surveys (video)
2) Fish tagging and tracking
3) Settlement plates
4) Reef and ecosystem modelling

67
Q

‘Ecopath with Ecosim’

A

 an ecosystem modelling approach and software
 basically, you create a food web, and simulate how it changes
when you alter things (like habitat, or harvest rates)

68
Q

Ecosystem modelling

A

Create costal ecosystem off Sydney
create the food web
alter area of reef and measure changes to food web
• By adding more reef, we produce about 6‐20 g of fish per
m2 reef
• This is a fraction of the biomass that uses the artificial reef
(720 g per m2 of reef)
• This tells us that ARs can be great habitat, but probably
‘attract’ much more biomass than they produce
• This will vary greatly with each ecosystem, and how much
‘spare’ energy it has

69
Q

Things to remember!

A

 Two common forms of Fisheries Enhancement are Stock
Enhancement and Artificial Reefs
Stock Enhancement is the release of hatchery reared animals to
supplement wild supply
 SE has associated risks (e.g. disease etc; remember these)
 The main goal of ARs is to produce fish (i.e. create new biomass)
 Both ‘production’ and ‘attraction’ are occurring on ARs; these
processes explain why fish can be found near ARs

70
Q

define an MPA

A

An area of land or sea dedicatd to the protectoin and maintenence of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural resources- managed through legal or other effective means

ecosystem or place-based management - sometimes reffered to as spatial management

71
Q

MPA framework

A

comprehensive
adequet
representative

72
Q

How many MPSs in Australia

A

200, 6 in NSW- jervis, batemans, port stephens

73
Q

Threat to biodiversity

A

dredging- contamination, new habitat, lose soil, pollution, turbidity

74
Q

Issues and planning MPAs

A 
Site ID
Site evaluaiton
Site implication
Biological assessment- stakeholders
is it a source or sink site
draft zoning
extensive stakeholder consultation
finalise design
implement MPA
Review and rezone fter 5 years
75
Q

Locally managed marine areas

A

education–> stakeholder buy in–>Compliance–> success

economic benefits

76
Q

define citizen science

A

practice of public participation and collaboration in scientific research to increase scientific knowledge- people contribute to data monitoring and collection

77
Q

REal life survey

A

quality outputs and consistency data

no siginifacne in data from trained scientists and recreational divers

78
Q

Ecosystem services

A

– Direct and indirect effects of disturbances on BEF,
leading to impacts on services
• Degradation reduces the capacity to provide
crucial services (e.g. food, energy)
• Some can be irreversible – new state
• Problem is that some of the indirect drivers of
degradation are desirable and/or necessary
(e.g. coastal development for housing and
protection)

79
Q

Beyond conservation

A

• Human activities causing loss of biodiversity
and ecosystem function, leading to losses in
ecosystem services
• Phase shifts difficult to reverse
• Conservation or preservation of natural
systems – 1st action
• Most natural systems already in a degraded
state – in the marine realm, 50-90% remain in
a degraded state despite conservation efforts

80
Q

Restoration ecology

A

scientific exploration of ecosystems under repair

81
Q

• Ecological restoration is the repair work itself:

design and implementation

A

– “Process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem
that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed” (SER
2004)
– “Actively return ecosystem structure and function
from a degraded state to a previous, natural
condition”

82
Q

problem with restoration ecological experiemtn

A

No reason to assume a past condition is
appropriate now (places change naturally)
– No methods for measuring whether such state has
been achieved

83
Q

restoration is a scientific ecological problem

A

scientific, ecological problem
• It is always an experiment
– Specific sampling designs with appropriate reference and control
locations (instead of routine monitoring)
– Adequate replication
– Independent measurements of the variables measured
– Clear hypotheses

84
Q

– Rehabilitation:

A

changing the habitat to achieve some defined end
point
projects unable to adopt the target of
full recovery, but still based on a local indigenous
reference ecosystem

85
Q

– Restoration:

A

: attempt to return the area to some imagined or
impossible previous state
all projects that aim to ultimately
achieve full recovery relative to an appropriate local
indigenous reference ecosystem (regardless of time
it takes)

86
Q

Essential that restoration is based on

A

• Clear understanding and definition of the
problems
• Relevant scientific information about possible
causes of the problem
• Clear predictions about the consequences of any
attempt at restoration
• Social aspects are critical to successful ecological
restoration (not only conservation values, but
also socio-economical, inc. cultural)

87
Q

wetlands

A

never possible to achieve past natural state
fragmented
freshwater and tidal input
additional disturbances
mangrove forests Homebush bay- lack of natural flushing to increased tidal flushing

88
Q

considerations for restoration

A

Preliminary sampling: ‘impacted’ area vs
multiple, similar reference areas, at multiple
times
– Natural variability
– Need to understand variability at different scales to
design restoration ‘experiment’
• Can populations establish?
– Propagule supply
Alternative models or explanations
• Sample invertebrate community structure at
several Impacted, Control and Reference
locations, several times before and after the
restoration attempt

89
Q

approaches to coral restoration

A 
•	Restore	the	habitat	
•	Restoration	of	corals	per	se	
							-	Fragments	and	transplantation	
							-	Coral	seeding:	sex	and	larvae	
Physical	habitat	restoration	- artificial reefs
90
Q

Re-coral-ation

A 
Coral	transplantation	
• Ecological	engineers:	
the	“trees”	of	the	reef	
• From	bed	frames	to	
large	scale	nurseries.
91
Q

two stage nursery rearing pros

A
  1. Relatively simple and “affordable”

2. Can be done by trained volunteers

92
Q

two stage nursery rearing cons

A
  1. Damage to existing donor colonies

2. Low genetic diversity

93
Q

issue with restoration

A

mismatch between scale of restoration and degredation

94
Q

Australia’s southern reef

A 
>	8,000	km	of	coastline	
where	70%	of	population	live	
(c.	71,000	km2	[0-30m	depth])	
Kelp-dominated	
65	t	biomass	per	ha	per	yr
(16x	higher	than	wheat-fields)	
Biodiversity	‘hotspot’	
High	endemism	
A$	10	billion	per	yr
Less	funding	
A$	4M	vs	55M	GBR	(5	yrs)
95
Q

Genetic diversity

A 
donor	populations	w/	higher	resistance/resilience	to	predicted	
environmental	changes	(e.g.	warming	&amp;	acidification)
96
Q

ecology summary

A

Restoration is about ecology
• Need clear and sensible goals against which to
measure success
• Good understanding of ecological processes
and interactions operating in the system
• Logical and experimental
• Design is critical
• Public support also critical

97
Q

how many drownings per year from rips?

A

100

90% of surf rescues in Aus

98
Q

methods of observing rips

A

eulerian
langranian
remote video monitoring
modelling

99
Q

causes of rip fatalities

A 
ignorance
complacency
politics
reliance on sinage- educational or warning approach?
2nd most dangerour hazrd in Aus
funding limited
drownings revieve limited media attention
inform\tion disconnects
100
Q

Conventional Rip Advice

A
  1. Don’t Panic
  2. Don’t swim against the rip
  3. Swim parallel to the beach
  4. Stay afloat and signal for help
101
Q

challenge 1 2 rips

A

: How do we communicate all this complex information
about rip behavior, how to escape a rip, how not to panic, etc?
Challenge #2: How do we make beachgoers care and motivate them to
swim where there are lifeguards or ‘if in doubt, don’t go out’?

people remember visuals, slogans

102
Q

rip summary

A
  1. Science will continue to provide information about rips
  2. We need more information about people
  3. Beach safety practitioners need to use
    this information in the most effective way
  4. Rip education should be visual
  5. ‘Disconnects’ will not improve without
    knowledge/best practice and collaboration

Marine Science (4 decks)

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