Good Copy Exam 1 Flashcards
define learning vs memory
learning is the acquiring of new information while memory is the retaining and retrieval of that new learned information, persistance
Ebbinghaus
acquisition and retention of a controlled experience (how to learn and then keep). nonsense syllable. forgetting curve.
Explain the results of Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve
most forgetting occurs in first hour. can be single trace, rapid initial decrease of time and trace strength or dual trace - split into short and long term. short term is rapidly acquired with steep decline. long term established slower and decreases slower
Psychology vs neurobiology study of behavior
psych only interested in experience to behaviour.
neuro interested in brain systems, synapse strength and maintaining and manipulating the molecules involved in neurons of experience to behaviour.
In the midst of a neurobiology revolution because
- mature of many bodies of knowledge/evidence
- maturation and conceptual models
- technological advances
Ribot
- Ribots law - older memories are more resistant
- “Disease of Memory” - that once diseased brain, memories are forgotten in an orderly fashion (recent, personal, habits, emotional)
Korsakoff
Korsakoff’s syndrome (alcoholism) - from a vitamin B deficiency. characterized by anterograde amnesia and then later retrograde
William James
- Functionalist movement - relationship between mental processes and adapting to the environment
- pushed for animal study for humans and how humans are rational and irrational (emotional)
- Proposed memory occurs in stages
Explain the 3 stages of memory that William James proposed
- Afterimage - shortly retained, brief lasting sensation replaced by
- primary memory - partially retained into stream of consciousness, persisting representation of an experience
- secondary memory - retained and can be retrieved and can recede from stream of memory
Golgi
- believed in reticulum theory - NS like spiderweb, all interconnected
- golgi stain - neurons to be visualized
Cajal 2 big ideas
- Neuron Doctrine
- Synaptic Plasticity Hypothesis
Define neuron doctrine
- neuron = fundamental unit of NS
- 3 parts to a neuron
- non continuous
- synapse
- law of dynamic polarization
Define synaptic plasticity hypothesis
strength of synaptic connections, the ability to excite and send action potentials, can be modified by experience and is not fixed. the more the connection is used the more it is strengthened
Cajal’s 3 major contributions
- neuron is an independent unit - not continuous
- figured out logic of the brains wiring - axon could travel short long distances, but always terminated at dendrites
- the synapse - how axon and dendrites are continuous through connected of synapses
Define law of dynamic polarization
electrical activity of neurons always from axon to dendrite
Thorndike
- Animal Intelligence - how learn consequences of their behaviours and then adapt
- Connectionism - learning consists of association between stimuli and response (trial and error)
- instrumental conditioning - learning that reward, reinforcer, or consequence is connected to result of a behaviour
- Puzzle Box Experiment
What are all the theories that Thorndike created
- Law of readiness - (before 1930) - satisfying when ready and can learn, annoying when not ready and forced or ready and not allowed
- Law of Exercise - Law of use - strengthened connections. Law of disuse - connections weakened
(RENOUCED after) - Law of Effect - response leads to reinforcement then strengthened, if response leads to punishment it is weakened (S-R connection)
REVISED half true - not weakened, remains same if punishment
After 1930 added Spread of effect - reinforcement increases probability of response AND increase neighbouring responses even if they were originally punished
Concepts important for instrumental learning
- multiple response - learning involves responding in multiple ways, organisms will keep trying different ways until solve
- set or attitude - recognize individual differences/motivates
- prepotency of elements - only some elements will govern behaviour, some have more of an impact then others
Explain Thorndike’s conditions in order for Punishment to have successful effects
- intensity of punishment
- # of conditioning trials
- interval of time between response and punishment (to allow association) most important
- sequence of conditioned learning stimulus and unconditioned (not learning) stimuli
What was Thorndike criticized for
assuming determinism - that all events are determined by previously existing causes, takes away free will and human values
Puzzle Box Experiment
Thorndike
animal placed in box, if push lever can escape box
more trials less time it touch
conclusion: learning was direct and not mediated by thinking or reason (trial and error)
Define Multiple Memory Systems
specialized systems to store and utilize different kinds of information contained in our experiences. ability to recall episodes. don’t establish emotional based behaviour responses (pin in hand)
1. complete understanding of memory can only be accomplished by recognizing how the content of experiences are important
2. memories are segregated into different brain regions according to content
Short term vs. long term memory
short term - current attention, not retrieved
long term - doesn’t take up current stream and can be retrieved
Define Engram
“memory trace”
set of changes in NS represent stored memory that involves persistent change in relationship between neurons
Lashley
first attempt to locate engram = unsuccessful
found tissue removed (amounts) was more important than the location. larger lesions had more effect on engram
Scoville
did H.M surgery, knew unique location of brain damage and what was removed
with milner provided first real evidence for multiple memory systems
H.M
bilaterally removed medial temporal lobe (hippocampus, amygdala, surrounding cortex) resulting in permanent anterograde amnesia and some retrograde
What tests did HM perform and what were the results
- Delayed comparison test - 2 stimuli presented with space in between, have to indicate whether first and second stimuli were the same.
difficult because anterograde amnesia - Maze learning - visual task to remember route to escape
same difficult - Mirror Drawing Task - trace star through mirror
showed improvement over time, but couldn’t actually remember practicing doing this task. short term memory was intact, but couldnt convert short to long term
4 contributions from HM results
- known specific location of damage
- specific regions critical to memory
- memories function separated from other cognitive abilities
- amnesia restricted to certain kinds of content
medial temporal lobe disrupted episodic memory systems
3 conclusions of HM
- type of learning and memory promoted by medial temporal lobe
- Milner concluded hippocampus critical site for memory
- evidence for hemispheric specialization (left = verbal learn and memory, right = spatial, nonsense figures)
Patient R.B
significant anterograde amnesia, no evidence of retrograde
damage to CA1 region of hippocampus which affects anterograde
failed paired associative learning and delayed recall tasks
Difference between H.M and R.B
area of damage, how retrograde wasn’t affected in R.B.
Patient N.A
verbal anterograde amnesia, because impaired left temporal lobe
Tolman
- Explain goal directed behaviour - learns by pursuing signal to a goal, acquired through meaningful behaviour
chief characteristic of goal directed behaviour is molar behaviour - behaviour always directed towards a goal - stimulus- stimulus theorist instead of stimulus-behaviour, learning ongoing process of what leads to what, only matters if task has value
- cognitive map - mental process of linking together features of the environment
reinforcement unimportant, wanted confirmation instead
Tolman confirmation vs. reinforcement
confirmed hypotheses/ expectations are retained in cognitive map, not are abandoned
Vicarious Trial and Error
rat look around at choice, thinking about alternative options available, this is done with cognitive testing
not trial and error
Define performance
translation of learning into behaviour
Define latent learning (and experiment)
not translated into performance, dormant before into behaviour
Group 1 - never reinforced Group 2 - always Group 3 - only reinforced on 11th day (performance much better through motivation)
Plus maze
believed learn where things are
Group 1 - response learning group - always turn same direction (3/8 successful)
Group 2 - place learning - if start at one place must turn right, start at other place must turn left (all successful)
Different apparatus training
trained in one apparatus for that route, then removed and replaced with different. went to same “spot” that would overlap in the maze. supports place learning
Reinforcement expectancy (and experiment)
thought if reinforcers changes, behaviour disrupted since reinforcer becomes expected
Group 1 - maze for bran mush (but switched to sunflower later)
Group 2 - maze for sunflower seeds
switching disrupted performance
Tolman contributions
- reinforcement as information
- S-R antagonist
- latent learning
- spatial/relational learning
Cognitive mapping theory
O’Keefe and Nadel
1. locale system - dependent on hippocampus and supported cognitive mapping, spatial relationships and cues (damage = exploration and place learning)
taxon system - not reliant on hippocampus, supported stimulus response learning/habit learning
place vs taxon hypotheses
place = flexibility, retrieval of context specific information and rapid change
taxon = none of these properties
Contextual Retrieval Theory
Hirsh
role of hippocampal in process of contextual retrieval of information
proposed 2 systems, 1. contextual retrieval system depending on hippocampus 2. performance line system independent of hippocampus
he meant by “context” was the cues of the environment
Explain information that is retrieved in the contextual retrieval theory
information retrieved from contextual stimuli and then placed into performance line (in the performance system), learning from contextual is flexible
if hippocampal damage, absence of contextual retrieval system, performance governed by summation of current and previous reinforcement history of stimuli
Mishkin and Murray
believed amygdala and hippocampus seem coequal, could substitute for each other
DNMS - choose novel object not originally picked
only found impaired performance when both structures damaged
Squire
believed damage to rhinal cortices surrounding hippocampus caused impaired performance on DMNS (NOT amygdala and hippocampus). only damage to rhinal cortex impaired performance
What conclude from DNMS results
either 1. hippocampus not part of the episodic memory system
2. DNMS task has solution that doesn’t depend on episodic memory (correct)
Dual process theories of recognition memory
DNMS doesn’t only depend on episodic memory system, one solution depends on hippocampus, one doesn’t
use perirhinal cortex that makes familiarity-based judgments while hippocampus for recollection
declarative memory
includes episodic memory and semantic memory (generalizations and facts, context free, not tied to place where it was aquired)
2 views of the role of hippocampus in episodic and semantic memory
- unitary view - system needed to support both episodic and semantic
- modular view - believe entire system required for episodic memory, but semantic memory doesnt require hippocampus
HM spared semantic memory after retesting
humans can have spared semantic but damaged episodic
Interacting memory systems theory
Systems are functionally dissociable, acquire and store in parallel, non specific system components, each system designed to represent different relationships among learning situations
Hippocampus anatomy
Entorhinal cortex controls input and output information into hippocampus
Has horizontal and vertical organization that allows sensory input from neocortex so be distributed
Hippocampus reactivates cortical nodes of a previous experience
Electrophysiology of hippocampus
Place, head direction, boundary, speed, grid, and prospective cells
Place units
O”Keefe and Dostrovsky
Plasticity is key characteristic
Provides foundation for internal representation of space for cognitive map
Place cell properties
- Location specific firing
- Head direction dependent
- Not topographic (not same as neighbour)
- Independent fields in different environments
Other info on place cells
10 mins to establish
Lesions I’m fornix and entorhinal disrupt place cells
Keep firing in dark
Not dependent on goals
Field development after place cell discovery
Early - spatial nature of cells and sensory electrophysiology
Middle - discovery of head direction cells
Current - entorhinal cortex, leads to discovery of grid and border cells
Place cell firing fields properties
- Fields independent of each other
- Independent in different environments
- Stable over time (create memory)
- Anchored to dominant cues
Grid cells
Within entorhinal cortex
Allow understanding of position in space, abstract special structure
Triangular array
Temporal aspect,
location in time
Two state theory of navigation
Info flow depends on animal using landmark or self motion (both grid cells
Boundary cells
Fire when boundary at particular distance and direction
In subiculum, paradubiculum, and medial entorhinal cortex
Speed cells
Hippocampus and entorhinal
Alter firing rates with pace of rats, don’t code spatial demensions
Include head direction and grid cells
Stereotaxic brain atlas
Allow for precise location of brain sections
3 types of experiments
Place learning in water task
Hidden platform in water
Impaired if dorsal hippo damage, not if ventral
Shows ventral has some sort of special and memory role
Quadrant time testing
Radial maze
Spatial memory test
Damage to hippo, fornix, entorhinal cortex
Used food for positive reinforcement
Negative testing
Decrease response when combined stimuli, rewards for each stimuli separately.
Hard for hippo damage because can’t separate
Non discriminative fear conditioning to context
Rat in box allow to explore, sound occurred then shock. Later sound occurs again and rat shows fear
Hippocampus damage freezes less because doesn’t make association
Whishaw and jarrard problem with water task
Believed rats know where was, but lesions affected movement so that’s why couldn’t get to platforms.
Water task results
Latency and error worse in hippo
Both spend time in right quadrant and head direction good
Hippo made larger loops, less precise
Ventral vs. Dorsal damage on spatial water task results
dorsal damage = impaired, ventral = not impaired
shows some sort of spatial learning and memory role in ventral
radial maze
damage to hippo, fornix, entorhinal cortex = deficits in task
uses positive reinforcement
food at different arms
measure of testing spatial working memory
Non discriminative fear conditioning to context
rat in box, allowed to explore, tone goes off, then shock.
later tone will go off again and rat will freeze because associates tone with shock
damage to hippocampus = freeze less because can’t make association
negative patterning
decrease responding/ not reinforced for the combination of stimuli, increase/reinforced for individual stimuli at a time.
hippo damage = difficult because can’t separate
Whishaw vs. Jarrard compared to Mcdonald and Hong when looking at why rats cannot complete water task
First 2 believed that couldn’t get to platform because hippo damage caused motor issues. so knew to get there but physically couldn’t
last 2 found only were the same on head direction and quadrant time, different/worse on latency, path length
Conclusion: hippo damage can show place response (but not to the same quantitative or qualitative level. spatial specificity still lacking
Problem of On-Demand Platform
showed rats as impaired because they combined results from either rats staying in an area long enough for the platform to become visible, or rats learned that they would get picked up out of cold water by humans, so would swim near the wall of the tank
Antonods and Mcdonald retest discriminative version of fear conditioning to context. lesions and then train
had dark triangle vs. white square. testing paired content and unpaired in a safe room. test ability to remember environment cues and harmful experience (shocking), shock in dark triangle. using freezing to test fear. not hippo dependent, actually amygdala because used for storage and acquisition. requires high pattern separation - similiar inputs but create different outputs to separate memories
role of hippocampus in configural learning
learn to respond to combination of stimuli, instead of separate.
conclusion - rats impaired at acquisition and retention of negative patterns. configuration requires hippocampus
2 meanings of episodic memory
- intentional - retrieval is initiated, active searching for memory
- awareness - that a memory trace has been successfully activated, product of the retrieval process
hippocampus indexing theory of episodic memory
- potential neocortex activity
- memory forms when neocortex patterns activated by experience
- resulting engram, patterns of neocortex and indexing neurons in hippocampus
Why hierachical system of hippocampus, if only needs to reactivate neocortex for memory?
- neocortex may be too slow for associative connect to support the rapid changes and associative patterns
- organization helps with intereference problem solving
properties of episodic memory
- conscious awarenesss - present entire experience, process to activate
- autonomic storage property
- episodic nature - each unique neocortical patterns
- interference - no interference because of hippocampus supports pattern separation
preexposure effect
rats immediately shocked cant make association because takes 10 mins to establish place cell
were more scared of the time after placed in a new location than the actually location itself
