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Politics > Global Politics > Flashcards

Global Politics Flashcards

1
Q

Realism

A

Belief in international anarchy and the security dilemma from the build up in weapons - Hans Morgenthau unitary actor

  1. Nation states are the most important actors
  2. No other actor has the authority or control to limit the behaviour of nation states
  3. Since global relations are anarchic there is ‘no night watchman’ (John Mearsheimer) to maintain order
  4. Since the highest goal is for a nation state is survival liberal principles are irrelevant and possibly dangerous
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2
Q

Liberalism

A

Joseph Nye ‘complex web of interdependence’

  1. Human nature is rational and cooperative rather than aggressive and egotistical.
  2. Conflict is not inevitable because nation states can make the rational decision to cooperate rather than aggressively seek power
  3. International organisations and the international rule of law provide a framework for states to resolve collective dilemmas together.
  4. Human rights, free trade and liberal democracy encourage cooperation and reduce the risk of nation states acting aggressively
  5. Globalisation and regionalism provide important opportunities for nation states to cooperate with other nation states and non-state actors
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3
Q

Realism vs Liberalism (human nature)

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  1. People therefore states are rational, amoral actors / People therefore states look to help each other as they are good natured
  2. People therefore states are fixed unitary actors with unchanging desires / People therefore states have fraternal bonds do not have fixed interests
  3. People therefore states seek power after power and are drawn to conflict / People do not only seek power conflict can be resolved
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4
Q

Realism vs Liberalism (power)

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  1. Power is finite (explain zero sum game) / Power is infinite
  2. States are solely power maximisers (explain unitary actors) / Other power maximisers + also seek other things
  3. IGOs decrease power / IGOs increase power
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5
Q

Realism vs Liberalism (security)

A
  1. State security is primary as other states are power maximisers / States look for cooperation
  2. Order+Security is achieved through military (explain international anarchy) / Can be achieved through IGOs
  3. Order+Security important as humans crave protection in a state / Humans want cooperation
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6
Q

Realism vs Liberalism (conflict)

A
  1. Conflict is inevitable due to states being power maximisers / Nations influenced by other things
  2. Conflict is a natural position due to international anarchy / While peace is not default can be achieved through Kantian Triangle (Democracy, Economic Independence, IGOs)
  3. IGOs do not reduce conflict / IGOs do reduce conflict (1960 600,000 casualties in war 2006 10,000)
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7
Q

Realism vs Liberalism (IGOs)

A
  1. IGOs infringe on SS / They do not
  2. IGOs achieve nothing in reducing conflict / They do
  3. IGOs are doomed to fail and will be used selfishly by states / they will not
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8
Q

Realism vs Liberalism (significance of states)

A
  1. States provide the only source of security / IGOs do as well
  2. States are primary in the international order / States share importance
  3. States decide human rights / they are unalienable
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9
Q

Sovereignty/nation state

A

Internal sovereignty is the ability to govern independently / External sovereignty is the recognition of each other’s sovereignty

  1. Defined external borders

e.g. Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic recognised by 46 states but no fully recognised due to border dispute with Morocco, Northern Cyprus and Cyprus

  1. Population defined by citizenship and nationality

e.g. Tuareg people semi-nomadic Berber people in northern Mali, Kosovo not fully recognised in part due to the split between serbs and croats

  1. Government with authority

e.g. in 2015 ISIS controlled 60% of Syria, Sudan split between the RSF, SAF, and regional rebels

  1. Ability to form relationships with other states

e.g. ASEAN, USMCA

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10
Q

Is State sovereignty an outdated concept

A
  1. State borders are becoming less significant with increasing flow of migration

e.g. in 2020 there were 281mn migrants, migrants in Asia have increased from 48.2mn to 85.6mn

However, borders still define the territory of independent states which retain - UN requirement Sahrawi

  1. Violent non state actors are frequently challenging state sovereignty

e.g. in 2015 ISIS controlled 60% of Syria, Hezbollah operates both a Shiite political group in Lebanon and a military group, Hezbollah controls majority Shiite regions such as southern Lebanon parts of Beirut and eastern Bekka Valley

  1. violent non state actors are not taking over territory on a wide spread scale
  2. Economic globalisation is reducing the importance of borders in the global economy

e.g. international financial assets rose by $23.3 trn in 2020-2021 year, only 16 nations who are not observers or distinct members of the WTO

states still have control over many policy areas

Biden IRA, UK withdrawal from Europe

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11
Q

Cultural globalisation (strengths)

A
  1. Good for economy - migration (a form of cultural globalisation) allows for technological advancements to quickly spread and more labour

e.g. 1990 2.6mn people had internet access 2023 4bn, immigrants from outside the Eu made a net fiscal contribution of 5.2 bn in 2023 to UK

  1. Spread of western ideals of liberal democracy - When the Soviet Union fell. Satellite republics were exposed to western ideals and made the transition due to the effective nature of cultural globalisation. This allows for better civil liberties.

e.g. number of closed autocracies went from 48% in 1980 to 18% 2024, over 3bn live under some form of open democracy

  1. Cultural Coexistence - better understanding of cultures leads to more peace.
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12
Q

Cultural globalisation (weaknesses)

A
  1. Migrant labour is exploited - 50% of people in the Gulf States are Indian migrants. Around 10,000 migrant workers from Asia dies every year in the nations of the Gulf Cooperation council.
  2. Cultural Homogenisation - western dominance culturally creates a homogenisation which is disproportionately caused through meaningless consumerism. Mcdonalds, Apple I phones, commercial cultural products
  3. Cultural coexistence is facing a backlash

Brexit, rise of the AFD and 2024 EU election results in which ID gained second most seats

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13
Q

Political Globalisation (strengths)

A
  1. Reduces conflicts - political globalisation has led to an easier connection of states through IGOs. This in effect weakens the security dilemma.

e.g. 2022 141 nations voted for Russias hostilities to cease, 2021 84,000 deaths in state based conflicts 1981 200,000

  1. Deals through problems through NGOs

e.g. WPHF in DRC have supported seven projects on post-conflict recovery, SUDO resumed in Sudan august 2019

  1. Give every state a voice - allows for greater transfer of ideas which strengthens all states and increases scrutiny of actions
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14
Q

Political globalisation (weaknesses)

A
  1. Does not reduce conflict - infringes on state sovereignty and is used for states to maximise power

e.g. in 2016 more countries experienced violent conflict than in the past 30 years, failure to react to Russia

  1. Lacks accountability - leaders of IGOs are elected by nations but not by people - sometimes worse they are western dominated

e.g. US veto in IMF and World Bank

  1. IGOs just used by superpowers - for there own gain and smaller states are overruled by P5.

e.g. April 2024 US vetoed Palestinian statehood, March 2024 Russia vetoed the extension of the mandate for North Korean sanctions

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15
Q

Economic globalisation (strengths)

A
  1. Greater goods and services, jobs -

e.g. benefits of lower prices helped EU consumers by €600, $5trn traded each day

  1. Reduces conflict - dell theory

e.g. China US trade 2022 $758.4bn, RCEP 2020 SEA

  1. Reduction in global poverty -

2024 Vietnamese workers employed by TNCs are in the top 20% of earners in their nation,

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16
Q

Economic globalisation (weaknesses)

A
  1. Abuse of labour, ecological damage -

e.g. 60% of amazon deforestation is for cattle growth, 2.5mn tonnes a year is from pirate fishing in south east asia

  1. Contagion of instability -

Covid led to a 7% drop in global commerce in 2020, by 2023 Russia ukraine war had caused a 1% reduction in GDP

  1. Rising inequality -

Gini Index of inequality has decreased marginally from 39.6 to 38.6, rust belt cities such as pittsburgh and buffalo have seen a 40% reduction in population 1970

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17
Q

Globalisation perspectives

A
  1. Hyperglobalists globalisation is inevitable as a consequence of advances in technology. Humankind is entering a new and unprecedented age of interconnectivity and interdependence. Eventually, the world will become borderless and nation-states will cease to be relevant as we will have a single monocultural global nation; a single interlinked global economy; and a single global political sovereign.
  2. Sceptics - much of globalisation is a myth and argue that the so-called integrated global economy does not exist. In reality, regional, national and local economies are more significant. Cultural homogenisation is also limited in scope and will face an inevitable backlash. Sceptics further argue that international trade and capital flows are not new phenomena – they have been happening for millennia.
  3. Transformationalists - middle ground. They acknowledge that significant changes have occurred due to globalisation, but that they have not fundamentally changed the Westphalian system of sovereign states. Interconnectedness has increasing in breadth, intensity and speed. The governments of individual nation-states are perhaps becoming less important, but this is because they voluntarily submit to the process of globalisation, recognising that it is in both mutual and individual states’ interests. They can equally voluntarily reverse this integration.
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18
Q

UNSC (strengths)

A
  1. Accurately represents reality of power - P5 are distinguished by their nuclear weapons (only 4 states outside have nuclear weapons), by having most powerful states in UNSC means more likely to succeed

e.g. USAID extends to more than 80 countries, CFA franc

  1. Can act collaboratively

e.g. MINUSCA UNSC current mission supported 15000 troops, MONUSCO since 1999

  1. Veto - encourages consensus, prevents unilateralism

e.g. the UN is split use of veto encourages interaction between nations

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19
Q

UNSC (weaknesses)

A
  1. Unrepresentative composition - Asia have 1 member for 59% of population, Only 3/5 are true democracies
  2. Internal rivalries cripple efficacy -

e.g. US april 2024 veto of Palestinian statehood, march 2024 non proliferation DPRK

  1. Difficult to reform - Veto means no one will dilute power

e.g. in 2011 Russia and China supported India’s UNSC bid

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20
Q

UNGA (Strengths)

A
  1. Global Forum - A space for multilateral action

e.g. 2022 UNGA established ‘Our Common Agenda’ which sought to reaffirm the social contract, a focus on future generations, protect global commons and global public goods, upgraded UN

  1. Equal Representation - Assembly provides one vote per nation, allows smaller nations to be heard

e.g. Antigua and Barbuda pop of 93,000 China 1.4bn, president of the 71st UNGA session came from Fiji

  1. Promotes dialogue - Reduces chance of conflict by allowing states to understand each others positions.

For example, number of interstate wars has decreased since 1945. 2021 84,000 deaths in state based conflicts 1981 200,000

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21
Q

UNGA (weaknesses)

A
  1. Poor effectiveness in global forum
  • Antonio Gutierres

“I am personally devastated that despite our best efforts, we could not protect our personnel in Gaza.”

UNFEP said that progress on reforestation had not been reliably achieved

  1. Represents states not people (population)

e.g. China

  1. Merely a talking shop -

2022 141 nations voted for Russias hostilities to cease, UN condemned Israel 14 times in 2023

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22
Q

ICJ (facts)

A

Composed of 15 judges elected for 9 year terms

Role of ICJ is to settle disputes and give legal advice to UN agencies

Will only make judgements if all states agree to abide by ruling

Rulings are binding and can be enforced by UNSC

Advisory opinions are not binding but respected

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23
Q

ICJ (strengths)

A
  1. Upholds international law - conflict resolution and maintenance of international community.

e.g. Feb 2022 Uganda has begun paying its $325mn settlement to DRC, 2024 case on Russia against the financing of terrorism and the prevention of Ukrainian identity in Crimea

  1. UNSC enforces rulings

e.g. Bolivia’s costal claim in Chile

  1. Reduces conflict - ICJ allows states to back down from conflict. E.g. Preah Vihear Hindu Temple on Thai-Cambodian border was a source of conflict ICJ arbitration 1962
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24
Q

ICJ (weaknesses)

A
  1. Jurisdiction is conditional - both states have to agree.

e.g. Feb 2024 Human Rights Watch says ICJ was not complying to prevent genocide, Application of the CERD (Armenia v. Azerbaijan) [2021-2023]

  1. Unenforceable rulings - rulings unenforceable against those in UNSC.

e.g. e.g. 2018 Iran filed ICJ suite against US sanctions ICJ ruled in Iranian favour, 2016 Against China’s right to South China Sea

  1. Unable to solve intra state conflict - due to state sovereignty harder to have rulings inside a state

RSF SAF in Sudan 2024,

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25
Q

NATO (strengths)

A
  1. Prevented conflict within Europe - since its foundation it has prevented conflict within Europe between the two forces through collective security Article 5
  2. Effective humanitarian role - NATO has shifted their role since fall of Warsaw Pact.

e.g. NATO enforced UNSC resolution 1973 for a no fly zone in Libya 2011, 2009-2016 Operation Ocean Shield to reduce piracy off Horn of Africa, 2023 Turkey earthquake

  1. Ideologically and politically close-knit - All nations are pro-capitalist liberal democracies
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26
Q

NATO (weaknesses)

A
  1. Expansion into Baltic states has created new instability and conflict with Russia.

e.g. April 2023 Finland joining NATO, Putin justification to the Russian people

  1. Destabilising failures - Invasion of Afghanistan with NATO troops was a failure and resulted in withdrawal and Taliban rule + Libya verging on a failed state.
  2. Growing internal division - Disputes over 2% GDP spending rule with Donald Trump complaining, Growing rift with Turkey as they have received weapons from Russia and had problems with expansion
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27
Q

IMF (facts)

A

Main aims are financial assistance and surveillance of global economy. Requires 85% of voted for resolution to pass. USA has an effective veto 16.52%

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28
Q

IMF (strengths)

A
  1. Presents global economic stability - IMF played large role during covid

For example, lent 250bn for stability per quarter, does yearly global stability reports

  1. IMF has adapted to global changes - This means that it has been effective at guiding global economy.

For example, supporting Nixon 1971, 1990 Fall of Communism, 2010 agreed to increase voting share of Brazil, Russia, India and China

  1. Low income countries receive 0% loans - this helps foster growth.

For example, in 2023 Benin received $200mn in 0% loans due to weak growth, $100mn to Burundi 2024

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29
Q

IMF (weaknesses)

A
  1. Overly influenced by West - based in American Capital, USA 16.52%
  2. Is a reactive body - Reacts to global economic turmoil rather than dealing with issues before
  3. Neoliberal economics - Loans have neoliberal conditions (cut state services). For example, studies on SAPs have shown rising youth unemployment Greece (2010s)
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30
Q

World Bank (strengths)

A
  1. Effectiveness of missions - World Bank utilises anti-poverty funds to help low income countries grow.

For example, World Bank issues $63bn in 2016 in low interest loans. These funds worked to increase female employment in the Arab League, OED analysed that 72% of WB projects were satisfactory in 2024

  1. Includes local communities - This has increased efficacy and decreased likelihood of harming existing industry.

2024 $1bn for Mexican business, 2024 mission for pastoralism Burkina Faso

  1. Global outreach - World Bank 189 members, 12000 projects
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31
Q

World Bank (weaknesses)

A
  1. Corruption - Many funds are diverted. For example, 2016 Afghani government embezzled over $100mn, Armenian government lost $30mn during a water project
  2. Ecological damage - projects damage biodiversity and countries are forced by loan conditions. For example, Coal fired power plants in South Africa, Oil rigs in Ghana.
  3. Insufficiency of funds - 2024 $45.9 bn budget was a tenth of the US military budget.
32
Q

WTO (facts)

A

Replaced GATT which had 23 states. Reduced tariffs from 22% to 5% in 1999. WTO currently has 164 member states

33
Q

WTO (strengths)

A
  1. Less western bias - WTO has less western bias as 60% of its members are developing nations, WTO rules are collectively written and member states elect the leadership from any country
  2. Effectiveness of economic development
  3. Tariff reductiion - WTO has reduced tariffs making goods cheaper. For example, Banana Wars EU tariffs on Central American bananas in favour of African bananas
34
Q

WTO (weaknesses)

A
  1. Still western dominated as the Quad of EU, US, Canada, Japan.

Whereas developing nations of the WTO have wanted to discuss agricultural tariffs

  1. Destructive consequences of free trade - WTO low tariffs have hollowed out certain manufacturing, WTO has failed to account for worker’s rights, child labour and environmental damage. For example, protests in Cancun 2003 over this failure
  2. Inability to compel states - state sovereignty means that WTO is weak. For example, 2012 ruling against US subsidies for Boeing were not followed by the USA
35
Q

G7 (strengths)

A
  1. Effective discussion forum - G7 meetings allow for intimate discussions amongst world leaders and finance ministers representing each country. All states are capitalist liberal democracies
  2. Internal legitimacy - G7 utilises a rotating president so that discussion is not dominated
  3. Global economic powers - G7 is able to make important interventions to stabilise the global economy due to the economic strength of its members. For example, 2005 doubled African aid and cancelled debts of 19 developing countries. In 2008 it coordinated a response with the IMF
36
Q

G7 (weaknesses)

A
  1. Internal divisions - Donald Trump claims that other nations exploiting USA. For the first time the G7 did not release a joint communique in 2019
  2. Failings - G7 has been accused of exporting its neoliberal economics. G7 is unwilling to engage in substantive discussions on poverty or climate change
  3. Global illegitimacy - G7 global economy share has reduced to 46%. its relevance without China, India and Brazil can be called into question
37
Q

G20 (strengths)

A
  1. Broader legitimacy - Includes developing and middle income countries. For example, 90% GDP better geographical spread 2/3rd world population.
  2. Forum for discussion - provides intimacy of G7 and allows nations to coordinate economic responses.
  3. Provide stability for the global economy - addressed issues such as 2008 financial crisis. Free trade agreement between MERCOSUR + EU at Osaka 2019
38
Q

G20 (weaknesses)

A
  1. Too exclusive - still excludes bulk of 195 countries including Norway, Singapore, Nigeria
  2. Internal divisions - 2020 summit was marred by discussions between EU + Saudi Arabia on human rights
  3. Neoliberalism - It still pushes neoliberal economics onto the world. Yet to debate thoroughly global warming.
39
Q

Global economic development measures

A
  1. Orthodox measurement - poverty is being below minimum income ($1.90) needed to ensure adequate access to safe drinking water, food, clothing, shelter, health and education. Poverty is a purely monetary affair
  2. Alternate measurements - include class discrimination, environmental quality, happiness
40
Q

Global systems - Structural Theory (long term effects)

A
  1. Ethnic tensions - in order to extract resources European forces established native ruling class. For example, Rwandan genocide Tutsi ruling class
  2. Structural dependency - colonialism destroyed self-sufficient national economies, colonies were used to plant cash crops
41
Q

ICC (strengths)

A
  1. Sets a precedent for international law - outlined in the Rome statute that in states under their jurisdiction, everyone can be prosecuted regardless of political or military role. For example, 2012 Congo Thomas Lubanga (President of UPC)
  2. Deterrent effect - ICC dissuades potential crimes as they have real ability to convict. For example, Uhuru Kenyata (Kenya) indicted after 2008 election violence 1200 dead following 2013+2018 elections were more peaceful, Uganda ICC issuing arrest warrants against LRA in 2005 might have led to LRA negotiating with Uganda government

3) Complementary to state justice systems - ICC respects state sovereignty and allows states to first deal with their own criminal prosecutions. For example, ICC supported the Colombian OTP with prosecution in 2012

42
Q

Global systems (neo-imperialism)

A
  1. Terms of trade - ex colonies are still dependent on raw material trade for export earnings. Core countries benefits disproportionately from this.
  2. Dominance of TNCs - TNCs can establish their presence and force a race to the bottom in these nations. As well as getting favourable tax deals. For example, TNC Glencore pay Zambian government $50mn but export 60bn in copper
  3. Aid money - western aid money disincentives long term growth with aid which is short term. Applies conditionalities to the loans
43
Q

ICC (weaknesses)

A
  1. Anti-African bias - a number of African leaders have accused the ICC of being a tool of western imperialism. Punishing leaders from small African states whilst ignoring the crimes of richer states. For example, 10 of 11 situations investigated in ICC were in Africa. 34 of 44 indicted have all been African. Burundi withdrew in 2017
  2. Limited jurisdiction - 123 of 195 states but most have not ratified the Rome statute. Those who have not are amongst the worst for human rights violations. For example, China - Uighur, Israel - occupation of Palestine, Russia - airstrikes in Syria, USA - war crimes committed during ‘War on Terror’. USAs ASPA would allow USA to invade Netherlands if ICC put American soldier on trial
  3. Questionable efficacy - ICC does not have its own method of enforcement therefore it relies on states to cooperate and arrest individuals. For example 15 out of the 22 individuals the ICC has proceedings against are still at large.
44
Q

Global systems - Neoliberal theory (Washington Consensus)

A

Argues that poverty is a part of the natural order. Solution is through economic development through the market. To tackle poverty states must : deregulate their markets, cut government spending, privatise state owned industry, encourage privatised business, focus economies on areas in which they have a comparative advantage.

45
Q

UN tribunals (facts)

A

Prior to Rome Statute special tribunals formed for particular crimes (1993-2017 Yugoslavia, 1994-2015 Rwanda). Even after ICC tribunals still used in cases where a state will not have the financial or judicial resources necessary (Special court for Sierra Leone 2002-2013, Courts of Cambodia 2006-present, Tribunal for Lebanon 2009-present)

46
Q

UN tribunal (strengths)

A
  1. Holds leaders accountable - UN tribunals means anyone can be punished. For example, Mladic (general who presided over Srebrenica massacre), Jean Kambanda Rwandan President
  2. Supports local court with hybrid tribunals - the tribunal with the courts of Cambodia from 2006 to present has allowed the previous genocide to be carefully rediscovered with local courts
  3. Have been successful and created stability - tribunals allow for nations to have closure on divisive conflicts. For example, Sierra Leone which convicted 3 AFRC leaders, 2 CDF leaders, Charles Taylor - leader of Liberia.
47
Q

UN tribunals (weaknesses)

A
  1. Requires state cooperation - UN tribunals require the nation to arrest and hand over the convicted. For example, has not worked in Lebanon where Salim Ayyash will not be handed over because of Hezbollah
  2. Symbolic justice - only apprehends figureheads such as Jean Kembanda eventhough 500,000-600,000 were killed. ICTR (Rwanda) only indicted 96 and convicted 61. Furthermore only brought justice on Hutus
  3. Lengthy process - ICTY 1993-2017, Cambodia 2006-present
48
Q

ECtHR (strengths)

A
  1. Common European Standards - common post war liberal standards which allow for greater agreement. For example, all EU states are signatories
  2. Represents all members - each signatory can select a judge. Judges are randomly selected for cases and cannot be on a case which involves their home nation.
  3. Empowerment of individuals - ECtHR cases are usually for individual against the state. For example, Article 3 (Prohibition of torture) 1999 Selmouni vs France, Article 6 (Right to a fair trial) Salduz vs Turkey
49
Q

ECtHR (weaknesses)

A
  1. Threat to state sovereignty - ECtHR is seen as being too activist with the ECHR. For example - Article 8 (Right to family life) used to give legal recognition to same-sex couples
  2. Lack of enforcement powers - Many states ignore its rulings. Non-implemented judgements rose from 2600 in 2001 to 10000 in 2016
  3. Excessive caseload - with its expansion of states and jurisdiction caseload has grown. For example, 8400 in 1999 to 57,000 in 2009. Backlog of 151,600 in 2011
50
Q

UNFCCC

A

Established by the UN at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit ratified by 198 parties. In charge of COPs

Rio 1992

Strength - 117 world leaders attended and it created thee UNFCCC ass a framework.

Weakness - Failed to commit members to specific actions

Kyoto 1997

Strength - Significant because it set first legally binding emissions targets. EU reduced carbon emissions by 8% in its lifetime

Weaknesses - carbon reduction was only required of 37 industrialised countries and the EU. China and India were exempt and the USA refused to sign

Copenhagen 2009

Strength - Temp rise should be limited to 2C. Plans to be made public. China and India agreed to decrease. $100bn fund for developing nations

Weaknesses - Did not include legally binding targets.

Paris 2015

Strength - Should be kept to 1.5C. NDCs where states set their own emission targets and submitted them to the UN. States would be expected to make their targets more ambitious every 5 years.

Weaknesses - Did not set legally binding enforceable targets. IPCC warned that voluntary

Glagow 2021

Strengths - Glasgow recommitted states to 1.5C. Phase down coal. 137 states committed to halt and reverse forest loss by 2030. 90% of states committed to net zero.

Weaknesses - India and China resisted the phase out coal so it changed to phase down. States resisted enforceable targets. No mechanism to ensure $100bn to developing nations. China Russia India did not commit to cutting methane emissions.

Sharm El Sheikh 2022

Strengths - A fund was established to help countires exposed to climate change

Weaknesses - COP members made insufficient progress on making their NDCs more ambitious. Only 34 out of 194 members submitted reserved targets

51
Q

Hard Power

A

Deployment of coercion to achieve desired outcomes.

Military power or the threat of military power

Economic power through freezing trade in currency, sanctions, hard tariffs

Structural power can increase hard power. USA effective veto in the IMF and China’s Industrial and Commercial Bank of China (ICBC)

52
Q

Soft Power

A

Utilising the appeal of their culture to achieve the out comes they desire.

Outreach includes global reputation and cultural strengths

53
Q

Smart power

A

Combination of soft power cultural appeal with economic, military and structural hard power.

EU possess massive economic hard power alongside its considerable soft power influence

54
Q

Is hard power more effective than soft power in achieving positive outcomes? yes

A
  1. Military - can achieve geo-strategic objectives
  2. Economic - increase influence and global domination
  3. Structural - the use of RGOs is effective in hard power as it rallies the international community to your cause
55
Q

Is hard power more effective than soft power in achieving positive outcomes? no

A
  1. If military hard power is not accompanied by soft power it can cause negative outcomes
  2. Economic - hard to accomplish without international appeal and soft power
  3. Structural - the international community and structural power is primarily about soft power and use of hard power can cause alienation
56
Q

Great powers

A

States that have power and influence on a global scale. They have outreach beyond their region/near abroad and have significant structural power ono institutions of global governance.

57
Q

Superpower

A

A state that can project its military economic and diplomatic power globally. WTR Fox’s definition ‘great power plus great mobility of power’

USA has over 800 active military bases

58
Q

Is the US a declining superpower? yes

A
  1. US economic dominance is challenged by China
  2. Failures of intervention
  3. Internal Division
59
Q

Is the US a declining superpower? no

A
  1. Still the largest economy - forecasts of Chinese growth have lengthened. China’s own economic downturn
  2. US military reach is still unrivalled.
  3. Still top in terms of soft power
60
Q

Emerging powers

A

Country that is rapidly achieving the characteristics of great power and playing an increasing role in international relations.

Rise of emerging powers might suggest that the world is becoming more multipolar, as the US has to negotiate with increasingly self-confident powers to achieve its own geo-political objectives.

61
Q

Unipolarity

A

Only one dominant power that can exert influence across the globe.

Unipolarity causes peace and stability as no aspiring power would want to risk conflict.

However, unipolarity can present challenged to global stability as the hegemon might overreach

If the dominance of the hegemon is seen to be waning this can also encourage instability as aspiring powers mighty seek to unseat the dominance of the global power.

Thucydies Trap Graham Allison - Sparta had no choice but to go to war to prevent Athens from trying to supplant it as the leading city state.

62
Q

Bipolarity

A

In a bipolar distribution of power, two superpowers that are equal in military and economic power confront each other. This type of power distribution characterised the Cold War.

John Mearsheimer a realist regarded bipolarity as the most stable form of power distribution.

However, bipolar stability should not be exaggerated as the two leading powers act in proxy wars

63
Q

Multipolarity

A

Power is dispersed between multiple powers. Multipolar distribution of power is the one many realists dread because the more powers there are the less stability and certainty there is.

However, if the great powers are prepared to cooperate, multipolarity can potentially encourage stability.

64
Q

Democratic states

A

Have democratically elected leaders and have a choice of political parties with a peaceful transition of power.

In liberal democratic states, power is shared between the legislature, executive and judiciary

65
Q

Semi-democratic

A

Have elements of democratic rule but combine with autocratic elements.

May be democratic elections but their legitimacy might be questionable. Widespread corruption and the potential lack of an independent judiciary.

66
Q

Non-democratic states

A

Have no elections or independent institutions. Since there are no oversight the executive tends to be corrupt and authoritarian. Human rights is a large issue.

67
Q

Failed states

A

Democratic institutions and the authority of the government have collapsed.

Terror groups and independent militias often provide the structure in absence of a regime. The presence of failed states can often destabilise neighbouring states.

68
Q

Rogue states

A

States that are in defiance of international standards of law and commit widespread human rights abuses. Disregard for international law makes them a threat to regional and global stability.

69
Q

Do semi-democratic/authoritarian states threaten global stability and security more than democratic states? yes

A
  1. Authoritarian states derive legitimacy fro military strength which makes them dangerous to regional and global stability
  2. Authoritarian states are less committed to human rights protection than democratic state with the rule of law.
  3. Less accountable for actions due to severe restrictions on freedom of speech
70
Q

Do semi-democratic/authoritarian states threaten global stability and security more than democratic states? no

A
  1. According to structural realists, all states are power maximisers. It is therefore irrelevant since all states have the same capacity to engage war
  2. Like authoritarian states, democracies have their own geo strategic priorities.
  3. Democratic states undertake illegitimate military operations
71
Q

Motivations for regional organisations

A

Economic - facilitating of economic links between states. May focus on tariffs such as NAFTA/USMCA but it can go further with the EU customs union and the freedoms - movement of goods, capital services and people

Security - nations in the same region share security interests. They can therefore join regional organisations to protect themselves from external threats and manage peacekeeping operations. The African Union has taken over peacekeeping operations from the UN in the DRC. Macron’s suggestion of a french led nuclear umbrella.

Political - nations can establish shared political structures that allow them to respond more effectively to collective challenges. EU adopts a common approach which can be legally enforced through the ECJ. Arab League formed to create a more united front

72
Q

NAFTA/USMCA

A

Established 1994 as NAFTA and shifted to USMCA under Trump. Does not have the permanent institutions of the EU and AU and possess a ‘sunset clause’ whereby at the end of 16 years nations can decide whether to renew it.

It focuses on textiles, agriculture and cars. USMCA has significant requirements to improve workers’ rights. 45% of car parts have to be made by workers earning a minimum of $16 per hour. Has a rapid response mechanism to ensure high labour standards, prohibits thew importation of goods made by forced labour, enforces regulation on the environment.

73
Q

African Union

A

Established in 2002. Institutions of the AU :

Assembly of Heads of State and Government - This is the highest body in the AU. It regularly brings together the leaders of Africa to determine the AU’s policies and establish its priorities

Pan-African Parliament - Each African state sends five members to the Parliament.

Peace and Security Council - designed to prevent and resolve conflicts in Africa, the peace an security council suspended Sudan from the AU in 2019. 2023 it participated in a joint AU/UN mission in Darfur.

AU has long way to go to emulate the integration of the EU.

It lacks supranational authority making it more like the G20.

However, AU’s Agenda 2063 proposes a free trade agreement. 2022 the Guided Trade Initiative was launched in which eight members allowed some goods to be traded without tariff restrictions.

Largest success of AU has been in peacekeeping missions in Somalia which in 2023 was the biggest peacekeeping mission in the world with 22,000

74
Q

Arab League

A

Established 1945 it is an IGO which focuses on political and security issues.

It has no supranational governing institutions and its focuse is to represent the views and interests of Arab states.

Its influence is weakened by its charter which states that decisions reached ‘shall bind only states that accept them’.

The significant differences between members of the Arab League means that it is hard to provide a common perspective. For example, crisis in Yemen due to Saudi destruction. Has issued declarations against Israel but done very little.

Arab League did suspend Syria in 2011 and supported NATO air strikes in Libya.

75
Q

ASEAN

A

Established 1967 with ten member states. ASEAN has a security objective and the opportunity for member states to act collectively to regional issues.

It has made progress towards a single market with almost all goods traded between ASEAN members free of tariff.

In 2020 ASEAN agreed to RCEP with Australia, China, New Zealand, Japan, and South Korea.

RCEP created the largest free trade area in the world amounting to 30% of world population and 30% of GDP

However, ASEAN has been less successful in forging a common approach to international crisis.

Committed to principle of non-interference in the sovereign affairs of its members, ASEAN lacks governmental institutions and decisions are reached through consensus of its leaders.

Failed to present a united front on issues such as the Chinese military expansions.

76
Q
A

Politics (15 decks)

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