Global Governance

Question 1

Political global governance example

Answer 1

UN and its most powerful decision making body the UNSC.

NATI

Question 2

Economic global governance example

Answer 2

IMF/ WTO/ World Bank
Established to help both rich and poorer states with their economic development.

Question 3

Human Rights global governance

Answer 3

Attempts to agree to global human rights laws and establish court and tribunals to hold states and others abusing human rights to account.
To ensure states cannot hide behind national sovereignty and abuse human rights without punishment.
-UDHR
-ICC
-ECHR

Question 4

Environmental global governance

Answer 4

Global warming and climate change are increasingly recognised as global responsibilities requiring urgent action.
Global conferences and agreements have attempted to take action to reduce the harmful effects states have on the global commons.
-International summits such as the
Copenhagen 2009 and Paris 2015
-States sometimes sign international agreements such as the Paris agreement when they commit to taking joint action

Question 5

4 types of global governance

Answer 5

-Political
-Economic
-Human rights
-Environmental

Question 6

IGOs

Answer 6

Advantage:
Permanent forum for debate and negotiation.
-Long term projects can be pursued such as SDGs and long term relationships built
-Good for smaller countries if all countries have an equal voice
-Membership can be made dependent on states becoming a key part of the agreement (e.g. all UN and members must sign the UDHR)

Disadvantage:
-Can become gridlocked if powerful states are given veto powers (e.g. the veto powers of the 5 UNSC permanent members)
-Less meaningful for small countries if they have no clear powers and are outmatched by more powerful states
-Effectiveness is dependent on the collective determination of IGO members
If this collectively becomes weak, IGO becomes weak
-States are likely to find ways of limiting IGO power if they feel it’s threatens state sovereignty.

Question 7

International Treaties

Answer 7

E.g. the NPT

Advantage:
-Allows like-minded states to create binding international law on any issue they have a common interest in
-Making agreements outside IGO can sometimes be more flexible and responsive rather than only with a consensus or majority.
-Attracted to state that wish to retain more control over the sovereignty as they get to pick and choose the international agreements that suit their particular interests

Disadvantage:
-States can choose not to sign treaties meaning that they are not covered by them, creating inconsistency (states that have acquired nuclear weapons did not sign or withdrew from the NPT)
-Even when states have signed treaties that cooperation largely remains a choice and it can be difficult to force states to comply with treaty obligations

Question 8

Examples of successful international treaties

Answer 8

Treaty of Rome: founded the European community later the EU

ASEAN: founded the free trade area which is now the regional trading bloc

Kyoto protocol: committed states to reduce emissions

Rome Statute: created the ICC signed by 121 states

Question 9

The UN

Answer 9

Founded in 1945 to taco global conflict would reduce poverty and uphold human rights. Political global governance.
Criticism: It is powerless to deal with international crisis effectively for example the US foreign policy during the war and sideline the UN.
-Ineffective in preventing or limiting COVID-19 pandemic.

Question 10

UN Charter

Answer 10

To inform the UN member states agreed and signed the UN charter.
The charter sets out and powers within international law and outlines how the UN works and carries out its functions
Founding objectives :
-Maintain international peace and security
-Maintain friendly relations among nations
-Promote and encourage respect for fundamental human rights
-Uphold respect for international law
-Promote social progress and better standard of life

Question 11

UNFCCC

Answer 11

Set up the governmental panel on climate change to ensure that the political process was supported by informed scientific research.
-Series of annual international environmental summit have taken place under you’ve only leadership leading to important agreement such as the koto protocol and the Paris agreement 2016

Question 12

UNHRC

Answer 12

The UN human rights council is an elected body of member states which monitors individual states human rights records and puts pressure on states to rectify breaches of human rights.

Question 13

Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Answer 13

The UN provided a vital forum for the treaty to be signed in which some states agreed not to acquire nuclear weapons.

Question 14

Peace and security

Answer 14

Any UN peacekeeping operations need to be approved by the UNSC which became more active on matters of peace and security after the Cold War ended.
Before this gridlock between the US and Soviet union made decision-making in the UNSC difficult

Question 15

UN military and humanitarian intervention

Answer 15

Somalia 1992
Rwanda 1994
Bosnia 1995

As the world has become more multipolar, it is harder once again for the UN to exit its authority
e.g. Ukraine and Syria since 2011

Question 16

Sustainable development

Answer 16

The UN expanded its role in promoting sustainable development and reducing global poverty.
Millennium development goals MDGs agreed at the UN millennium summit in 2000 represents a huge increase in focus for the organisations development efforts.
The UN continued this focus by reshaping MDGs into Sustainable development goals when the MDGs reached agreed endpoint in 2015 which is a good example of the UN expanding its work beyond the objectives that it originally set itself.

Question 17

UNSC

Answer 17

5 permanent members: China, France, Russia, the UK and the US. Has veto powers and can block any proposed resolution which they disagree.

10 Non-permanent members chosen by regional quotas serve two year terms

-supreme decision-making body for dealing with international crisis
-issues binding resolutions in international law which all members must abide
-Issues, economic sanctions and calls upon other member states to adopt them
-Authorises military ranging from humanitarian intervention
-Decides whether the new member states should be recognised by the UN general assembly.

-this is especially weak and powerless when a permanent member misbehaves and decides to take unilateral action in defiance of the UNSC
e.g. The US invasion of Iraq 2003
Russia, annexation of Crimea in 2014

Question 18

UN General Assembly

Answer 18

UNGA is like the UN’s parliament. I remember Sue can participate in debates and represented equally with one vote per state.
Annual meeting held at the UN headquarters in New York.

Question 19

International court of justice

Answer 19

That ICJ makes judgement main and territorial disputes between states and not on human rights matters.
That is not a criminal court.
There are 15 judges at the courts which only hear cases brought to it by states

Question 20

UN Economic and social council ECOSOC

Answer 20

Responsible for economic security and development and human rights.
Made up of 54 member states elected by the UNGA for three years terms
Allows member states to pass non-binding resolutions in its area of policy responsibility.
Directs the work of world health organisation and the UN international children’s emergency fund UNICEF

Question 21

Is veto vital for safeguard or cause of paralysis?

Answer 21

Paralysis:
-The use of veto gives too much power to the permanent members making the UNSC sometimes ineffective when important resolutions are blocked

Safeguard:
-The power was given to the most powerful states to keep them within the UN system to keep the permanent forum existing as they may refuse to participate if they could be outvoted on matters as to powerful states as peace and security
-Allows for great power unanimity for powerful states to defend their interests using the veto. It recognises the importance of powerful states remaining within the UN.

Question 22

Veto use

Answer 22

-Russia has used veto more than 100 times since 1945
The US is the second most frequent user of the veto. It vetoed frequently during the Cold War.
-The Cold War sold the Soviet union and US frequently use the veto reflecting the bipolarity of the world order which both nation states were equally powerful and intense and challenging each other.
-Since 2001 a more multipolar world has frequently seen Russia use veto and for the first time China has been increasingly willing to veto
-France in the UK have not vetoed since 1989 reflecting the fact that as a less powerful permanent member states they recognise that it is better to abstain on issues that they disagree with rather than veto and raise further questions about the legitimacy of their permanent membership.

Question 23

Example of veto use

Answer 23

2018 US veto a resolution that condemned Israel’s use of force against Palestinian civilians
2015 Russia vetoed a resolution calling for an international criminal tribunal to investigate those responsible for crimes connected with the downing of Malaysian airlines flight MH17 over Ukraine in 2014.

Question 24

UNSC achievements

Answer 24

UN authorised many important humanitarian interventions including Libya 2011 and former Yugoslavia, 1992

Peace talks: the UNSC has passed resolution setting up process of talks between key parties in Syrian conflicts since 2015 however 2021 has not led to any ceasefire

Sanctions: the UNC authorised sanctions against Iran from 2005 until 2015. It has also issued to sanctions against violence non-state actors including ISIL and al-Qaeda.

Ceasefire: UNC resolutions called for a ceasefire in Libya and set up a UN support mission which helped to secure the signing of a ceasefire agreement in 2020

Question 25

Does veto prevent UNSC from getting anything done?

Answer 25

Yes :
Permanent members are too powerful and able to veto anything that threatens their national interests and prevents action from being taken
-Powerful permanent members can misbehave and veto any action against them
-UNC is powerless to stop powerful countries from acting alone to pursue their interests

No:
-Achieves a lot passing many resolutions successfully
-the Veto supports the idea of great power unanimity meaning that the UNC can only take actions with the agreement of the major powers of the P5. This reduces the likelihood that the UN will take actions that will bring the P5 themselves into conflict.
-chapter VI: authorised over 70 peacekeeping missions around the world since 1948
-chapter VII: authorise military action e.g. Libya in 2011 and has imposed successful sanctions on regimes posing a risk to international security

Question 26

Should the UNSC be reformed? Yes.

Answer 26

-France and UK are no longer significant world powers and should be replaced or supplemented with other powers that have emerged since 1945
-the UNSC composition does not represent the current distribution of global power as it doesn’t take into account newly emerged powers such as Brazil, Germany, India and Japan
-More non-permanent or permanent members without veto power could allow for greater representation without giving new members too much power
-The UNSC was already successfully reformed in 1965 when the number of non-permanent members increased from 6 to 10

Question 27

Should the UNSC be reformed? No.

Answer 27

-Current permanent members would likely to be a significant obstacle to reform as they would all need to agree to any change to the UN charter in the UN general assembly any removal of permanent members impossible
-Agreeing on new members to be put to the UN general assembly would be with difficulty as Pakistan would likely oppose India’s membership seeing this as a direct threat to its interests
More states would further increase the likelihood of resolutions being voted and therefore the UNC been unable to act
Measure such as abolishing the veto altogether would result in the UN return to problems of the league of Nations where major powers with Drew because they had no facility to defend their national interests.

Question 28

The Nuremberg trials

Answer 28

Following World War II, the Nuremberg trials in which leading Nazis were tried as walk criminals the crimes against humanity The crimes exposed at the trial made the development of human rights based approach to international law an urgent concern.

Question 29

Universal declaration of human rights 1948

Answer 29

The UN drew up the UDHR which established civil political and social freedoms that all humans enjoy.

Question 30

NGO and human rights

Answer 30

Amnesty international
Human rights watch
Save the children
Have also highlighted human rights abuses and put new pressure on the international community to pay attention to abuses
-Human rights watch publishes annual world reports and catalogues nation records on human rights
-They have also demanded investigation into police response to black lives matter demonstration in 2020 has been significantly aggressive

Question 31

Difficulty in enforcing international standards of human rights

Answer 31

Values of universal human rights conflict with the theory of state sovereignty as a result the claims of international law such as the UDHR mainly represents soft law because nation states remain sovereign over their internal affairs and can choose whether to accept outside jurisdiction in cases affecting their citizens.
-Saudi Arab Arab Arabia has been criticised for human rights violation. It beheaded 37 people on the same day for terrorist related offences three of those executed well under the age of 18.

Question 32

Powerful states are unaccountable for their actions

Answer 32

-Powerful states, including China Russia and the US do not accept that ICC authority and state sovereignty limits the ECHR jurisdiction.
-Different cultural traditions challenged the principle of a universal standard of human rights
-Nation states are unprepared to sacrifice their realist self interest to liberal cosmopolitanism.
International human rights law is soft law

The war on terror demonstrates how the US has been prepared to infringe human rights in order to achieve its goal of defeating terrorism.
The CIA use of techniques such as water boarding
-Guantánamo Bay still holds 40 prisoners most of whom have still not been charged with any offence
-Saudi Arabia has been accused of targeting civilian showing its military intervention in Yemen

Question 33

Human rights are effectively protected in the modern world

Answer 33

-Establishments of international courts such as the ICC and the ECtHR shows willingness to protect human rights through legal methods.
-Criminal tribunals have been set up to bring justice to those who have committed crimes against humanity.
-The internet has made human rights abuses more globally known
NGO’s such as Amnesty International, HR Watch work to highlight abuses

Question 34

ECOSOC

Answer 34

Responsible for economic, security and development across the UN member states.
Acts as a forum for debate
Agrees to policies implemented by other UN agencies e.g WHO
Leads international development goals set out by MDG and SDG

Question 35

MDG v SDG

Answer 35

MDGs: The first global attempt agree and implement of coordinated set of world development targets focus primarily on human development

SDGs:
Agreed by the UN in 2015 to replace the MDG which add new goals including tackling climate change and focus on political development.

Question 36

Is there a need for environmental global governance

Answer 36

Climate change: to limit global temperature rises and reduce the impacts, including extreme weather events and rising sea levels
Deforestation: reducing the destruction of forest
Global energy: transition to renewable energy resources and reduce reliance on fossil fuels
Protecting biodiversity: preserving the variety of plants, bacteria, and animal life across the globe and showing the long-term survival of endangered species.

Environmental challenges are problems every state is affected by in someway and every state can have an impact small or large in solving these challenges

Question 37

Tragedy of the Commons

Answer 37

System of global politics is dominated by selfish national interests and competition for economic power and natural resources states will be motivated to use an even harm the global Commons to advance their own interests

-States are competing for economic power and resources this extends to natural resources.
-State governed by realism will not want to slow its economic development by switching from easily exploited fossil fuels to less immediately available renewable energy which needs new investments put in place
States act with realist motivations in efforts to protect and maximise their own interests meaning that state will refuse to sign up to international emissions targets if it believes that doing so will be expensive.
-Individual states only tend to see and take responsibility for their own actions rather than those taken collectively avoiding the tragedy of the commons requires awareness of the collective impact of many states
-Rapid population growth will only increase the challenges of the tragedy of the commons

Question 38

Harmful effects of climate change

Answer 38

-Rising sea levels could see some nation disappear entirely
-There could be an increase in global poverty and decreased in global food security caused by drought and lack of predictability of agricultural production

Question 39

Solutions to climate change

Answer 39

-Bringing individual countries emissions to net zero
-Investing in cleanup renewable energy resources rather than relying on fossil fuels such as coal oil and gas
-Improving international cooperation and monitoring including help for developing countries

The Paris agreement 2016 agreed to provide $100 billion a year in climate finance to developing countries by 2020

Question 40

Difference in developing and developed states

Answer 40

Developed states did not have to consider protecting the environment when they were industrialising. They did so unrestricted by environmental regulations.
-Now that developing states are industrialising and aiming to catch up with developed states they are having to do so while under international pressure to agree to rules.
-Environmental restrictions may impact the speed and success of developing states progress
-States still have large populations living in poverty and industrialisation is one way of reducing poverty.
-All states caused much of the impact of pollution and climate change during their period of industrialisation
-India responsible for only 3% of historic emissions whereas US and the EU were responsible for 16%

Question 41

Is it fair asking developing states to do more to tackle climate change?

Answer 41

Yes:
Pollution from developing states is increasing. This will eventually overtake pollution created by developed states
-Developing states are most likely to be affected by the negative impacts of climate change in terms of natural disasters and extreme weather events
-Developed countries that went through their own periods of industrialisation didn’t have access to the same renewable energy currently available to developing states.

No:
Pollution from most developed states is not increasing but currently developed states do pollute more than developing states.
-Developing states have a right to develop and asking them to take action on climate change while the develop merely makes their catching up harder to achieve.

Question 42

Realist and Liberal view on climate change

Answer 42

Realists:
-It’s important to address climate change, but not before other states also address it.
-All states should move forward at a similar level of seriousness one state must not take more action than another.
-Economic impact and actions must not harm the economy without other rival states to take economic advantage
-If a measure is likely to be harmful to a states economy and development that state may not be persuaded to take action.

Question 43

Kyoto Summit

Answer 43

Set internationally binding targets to reduce carbon emissions target applied only to industrialised states

Question 44

Copenhagen climate change conference

Answer 44

-Agreed that developing states would do more to combat climate change and develop states would also help raise $100 billion by 2020 to help developing states tackle climate change

Question 45

Paris COP summit

Answer 45

Agreement was the 1st to achieve commitment from all states to cut carbon emission.
Agreement was partly legally blinding and partly voluntary
States agreed to prevent global temperature from rising above to 2°C

Question 46

UNFCCC

Answer 46

Agreed at the Rio earth summit and provides a pathway for international cooperation.
Set up as a process three which future international negotiations on climate change could take place
Results of the UNFCCC that have been two major agreements :
-Kyoto protocol
-Paris Agreements

Identifies producing dangerous greenhouse gases as the primary focus.
Specifically asks developed countries to do the most to reduce climate change.

Question 47

IPCC

Answer 47

An international panel of climate change experts set up by the UN to provide states and policy makers with expert advice on the causes, impacts and possible solutions to climate change
-advises the government but does not and cannot enforce them to uphold its advice
-100s of scientists from many countries are involved in developing the assessments
-These reports help to inform international meetings under the UNFCCC
-largely successful at establishing a credible trusted and neutral evidence base

Question 48

ICJ

Answer 48

The international court of Justice is set up to:
-Settle legal disputes between member states
-Give advisory opinions on legal questions

Has 15 judges all of him the UNGA elect for nine year terms and are independence rather than representing their home state

2004 it ruled that the security fence Israel constructed around the Palestinian West Bank in the territory that UNSC resolution continues to call Israel to withdraw from was illegal under international law.
However Israel chose to ignore this ruling and continue to build the barrier stating it was vital to its internal security.

Question 49

Strength of the ICJ

Answer 49

Strength:
-With and without the consent of states that ICJ is still able to make important judgements which carry authority and many states see the ICJ as a useful mediator in disputes.
-ICJ rulings are binding on you and member states they do not comply with the UN charter the matter will be referred to the UNSC for enforcement
-Many international duty specify that the ICJ is the designated means of resolving disputes

Question 50

Weaknesses of the ICJ

Answer 50

-States effectively give their permission to be subject to the courts decisions this is not automatic
-Enforcement of rulings is dependent on the UNSC, but this is rare.
-Rulings can therefore be ignored

Question 51

Effectiveness of the UN

Answer 51

Cold War:
Soviet union and US dominated the early decades of the UN in particularly the security council

Post Cold War Instability in Africa and Europe :
The US is now the predominant world power.
-1992 UN peacekeepers in Somalia were unable to defend themselves against a rebel attack and were forced to retreat
-1994 UN peacekeepers in Rwanda to stop a genocide from taking place in front of them
-Peacekeeping operation in Bosnia 1992 failed to prevent forces from executing 8000 Bosnian Muslims.

War on terror:
US suffered devastating terrorist attacked in New York. it was established that al Qaeda terrorist network was responsible for the attacks and the Taliban government in Afghanistan had allowed them to plan the attacks from the bases in the country. The US government launched military action to remove the Taliban and pursue Al Qaeda.

Question 52

Bosnia and Rwanda

Answer 52

The UE was paralysed by indecision and unwilling to take sides.
The UN sent peacekeepers into the warzone but it failed as the killings multiplied in the biggest mass murder in Europe since the end of World War II Bosnian Serbs murdered 8000 Bosnian Muslims.

Rwanda genocide so as many as 800,000 Rwandans killed in a bloodbath. The tiny you enforce in Rwanda did not have neither the manpower or the mandates to take decisive action. By the time the UNC agreed to send reinforcements the killing was mostly over. As the scale of this tragedy became known so the failure of the international community to interview 

Question 53

Successful interventions

Answer 53

Sierra Leone 2000
Endured a brutal civil war where the President of Liberia backed the RUF’s many atrocities in return for blood diamonds. The Blair government sent a military force to help evacuate foreign nationals and began engaging in operations against the RUF consequently the Sierra Leone government was able to successfully crush the rebels.

Question 54

Unsuccessful interventions

Answer 54

Libya 2011
When an uprising against the regime of Gaddafi broke out and Libya Civil War began as bloodshed increased UN authorised measures to be taken to protect the Libyan civilians Was killed and NATO started withdrawing its forces.
However, any history of liberal democracy centralised government broke down as armed gangs seized control of large parts of the country and terrorists extended their influence.

Question 55

China and Uighur Muslims

Answer 55

1 million Uighur muslims have been detained and detention camps in China but the Chinese have denied the existence of these camps.
22 Mostly western countries wrote to the UNHRC Expressing the deep concern about what is happening to the Uighur Muslims.

Question 56

Double standards

Answer 56

The US only intervene in Afghanistan with the aim of destroying Al Qaeda and if 9/11 has not occurred it is highly unlikely that Western Powers would have intervened in Afghanistan even though the Taliban human rights abuses were already widely known.

Question 57

The UN is effective in maintaining international peace and Security

Answer 57

-The UNSC has been extremely active approving peacekeeping operations military intervention and sanctions across the world
-Nuclear proliferation has been controlled
-The UN has so far succeeded whether the league of Nations has failed interstate war has decreased considerably since the UN was founded and democracy has spread

Question 58

The UN has not been effective in maintaining international peace and security

Answer 58

-UN has struggled to respond to security threats from nonstate actors including Al Qaeda
-UN and was largely sidelined during the early stages of the war on terror
You and peacekeepers have seen tragic failures in Somalia, Rwanda and Bosnia. -Unless there was peace already and place you and peacekeepers are unable to have a positive impact.
-Civil Wars having increased interstate war has decreased

Question 59

In what ways has the ICJ been successful?

Answer 59

2002 the ICJ settled a dispute between Nigeria and Cameroon over the ownership of an oil rich peninsula

Question 60

In what ways has the ICJ not been successful?

Answer 60

ICJ influence is undermined because:
-It’s liberal principles conflict with the real estate egoism
-It cannot initiate cases and can only try cases that are presented to it
-States are able to choose whether or not to be subject to the decisions of the court by signing an optional clause
-although the UNSC is supposed to enforce ICJ rulings this is unlikely they would do this because the only effective way of ensuring compliance would be coercive action but according to chapter VI of the UN charter it can only be taken when international and security are threatened.

In 2020 that ICJ ordered the government of Myanmar to take all necessary measures to stop genocide against the Rohingya Muslims. Myanmar leader stated that the issue would be dealt with internally without outside interference

Question 61

UN Special tribunals

Answer 61

-To punish and bring to justice those guilty of human rights abuses
-Establish the legal principle that the international community can try heads of government for crimes committed within their country
-Make public the extent and horror of crimes of genocide, war and crimes against humanity so they will not be repeated

Question 62

Cambodia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone

Answer 62

The Cambodia tribunal is a national court establish to try the surviving members of the murderous Khmer Rouge government which was responsible for the deaths of 2 million people the court has handed out three life imprisonment sentences

The international criminal tribunal for Rwanda is investigating the Rwandan genocide in which 800,000 Rwandans were murdered the tribunal convicted 61 individuals of complicity in the genocide.

The special quote for CR was to try those who had committed atrocities in the countries Civil War the tribunal sentence Charles Taylor President of Liberia to 50 years imprisonment for complicity in the Civil War and was the head of state to be convicted of war crimes

Question 63

Limitations of international tribunals

Answer 63

Accused by some of delivering Victor Justice.
The US sat in judgement on Japanese War criminals and yet America could be accused of war crimes for the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki with nuclear bombs.

NATO could even be held accountable for inflict in war crimes both human rights watch an amnesty international have condemned the bombings of the headquarter of radio/television which killed 16 civilian workers. However NATO has never been held responsible for military actions. It carried out in Serbia.

Western powers funded the Sierra Leone tribunal and so critics claim that the court has helped reinforce Neo colonial stereotypes that Africa cannot deliver justice itself.

2015 Russia vetoed the establishment of a UN tribunal into the shooting down of Malaysian flight 17 over Ukraine. Russia was widely condemned for being the only member of the UNC to exercise the veto

Question 64

MDG successes

Answer 64

-Extreme poverty was reduced by half falling from one .9 billion people to 836 million people in 2015
-There’s an increase in primary school enrolment. Proportion of girls in school also increased.
-Child mortality was reduced by more than a half.

-economic development and rapid growth in China has been responsible for most of the success in eradicating extreme poverty.

Question 65

Kyoto summit & protocol 1997

Answer 65

-Legally binding targets to reduce emissions
-Industrialised states were committed to reducing emissions of greenhouse gases by around 5%
-To encourage mass of states to participate it would not legally come into force until enough countries had ratified it
-This principle of collective action would reassure states that others were also taking action and they wouldn’t be acting alone
-Brazil, China, India and South Africa granted exemption from emissions targets.
-States were required to submit reports on their progress and these were monitored by the UN

Question 66

Copenhagen summit 2009

Answer 66

To get the largest polluters, especially the US to agree on collective action.
-An agreement that there was a need to limit global temperature rises to less than 2°C
-The promise of new resources for developing states with an annual total of $100 billion provided by 2020
-Introduction of the green climate fund to help with climate change related projects in developing states

It did not include:
-Legally binding targets either for developed or developing states
-Approval by member states rather states recognised the principles of the accord
-It wasn’t clear the cord itself carried the weight of international law

Question 67

Paris Summit 2015

Answer 67

Legally binding targets applied to all states with no exemptions given to major pitas previous targets either failed to set an illegally binding targets Copenhagen or only having a small number of states agreed to target Kyoto

-An agreement to keep global temperatures well below 2°C
-A commitment to pledge and review where states agreed to cut omissions according to the nationally determine contributions (NDCs)
-Collectively review progress every 5 years
-A fund of US$100 billion a year by 2020 in climate finance for developing countries with a pledge to increase this overtime

Weakness:
-Worldwide greenhouse gas emissions were still rising
-G-20 states which account for approximately 78% of greenhouse gas emissions were not on track to meet their NDC ‘s

Question 68

Glasgow summit 2021

Answer 68

-States resolved to pursue effort to keep global temperatures to 1.5°C
-Agreements to phase down coal power
-First decision on power to future in a COP agreement.
-Developed states agree to provide $100b per year until 2025 to help developing countries tackle climate change.
-Paris agreement set up a carbon markets and the Glasgow summit deal finally agreed how this would work in practice.
-US and China make their own bilateral agreement to cut methane gas emissions
-Separately 100 states agreed to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030

Question 69

Strengths of Glasgow summit

Answer 69

-New ground was broken with the first agreement on reducing coal power.

-First commitment also to reducing deforestation and reducing methane emissions which account for a third of greenhouse gases

Question 70

Weaknesses of Glasgow summit

Answer 70

Analysts estimated that no major economy had agreed to emission reductions which would keep temperature rises below 1.5°C
Although 100 countries decided to cut methane emissions by 30% major emissions like China India and Russia has not made pledges

Question 71

Ecologism

Answer 71

The political ideology that places considerable importance on states and other actors impact on the natural environment.
Ecologists believe that actors in global politics should take steps to protect the natural environment.
They criticise human behaviours that selfishly do not take into account environmental concerns.

Question 72

Deep ecology

Answer 72

-Aims to preserve and protect the natural environment for the benefit of the natural environment

Argue that:
-All living things, plants, animals, humans are of equal moral value and any action that failed to preserve this equality is morally wrong
-Human beings are not more important than other living things and rejects the belief that humans are superior in the natural world
-Individualism should be rejected. Human being should always always consider how we live in harmony with the rest of nature.
-Nature is not something to be exploited for human gain

Question 73

Shallow ecology

Answer 73

Aims to conserve the natural environment in the interests of human mankind. Actions taken to reduce the use of fossil fuels are good because they will enable humanity to live sustainably and to further human development.

Argue that:
-It is acceptable to approach environmental issues from the perspective of what will benefit human kind
-Sustainable development is priority as it combines conserving the natural environment with advancing human development actively protecting interests of future generations of human
-Human instincts and priorities can be modified to reduce harm to the environment but it is still acceptable to prioritise human needs