Giraffidae

Question 1

Scientific name of giraffe?

Answer 1

Giraffa camelopardalis, then subspecies after (G. c. reticulata for ex) (F861)

Question 2

Scientific name of okapi?

Answer 2

Okapia johnstoni (F861)

Question 3

Name mechanisms that prevent edema and pooling in hindlimbs due to high blood pressure?

Answer 3

highly permeable capillaries, precapillary sphincters, and arterial wall hypertrophy, one-way valves lymphatics/veins, antigravity suit (thick skin/fascial layers), Pumping mechanism during movement (F861)

Question 4

What anatomical structure is presented in this reticulated giraffe and what is the function? ZP fig 5.2

Answer 4

normal large valves of jugular vein - prevent retrograde blood flow when head is lowered (ZP5)

Question 5

Which of the following is an accurate description of an appropriate captive giraffe diet? A. High fiber, low protein B. Low fiber, high carbohydrates C. Low fiber, high protien D. High carbohydrates, high fiber

Answer 5

Which of the following is an accurate description of an appropriate captive giraffe diet? A. High fiber, low protein B. Low fiber, high carbohydrates C. Low fiber, high protien D. High carbohydrates, high fiber (F861) - browsing ruminant, highly selective feeder, ideal low starch and fat, high fiber

Question 6

Supplemental heating options should be provided to giraffe when the ambient temperature falls below what? A. 10F B. 20F C. 32F D. 40F E. 50F

Answer 6

Supplemental heating options should be provided to giraffe when the ambient temperature falls below what? A. 10F B. 20F C. 32F D. 40F E. 50F - F861, prone to cold stress duee to high surface-to-vol ratio, adapted to tropics

Question 7

Giraffe are prone to what life threatening anesthetic complications?

Answer 7

regurgitation, hyperthermia, hypoveentilation, self induceed trauma during induction/recovery, myopathties and airway obstruction from malpositioned neck (F861, W58)

Question 8

Most critical times in anesthesia of giraffidae?

Answer 8

Induction and recovery (F861, W58)

Question 9

Why should the angle of an anesthetized giraffe’s neck be altered every 10-15 min?

Answer 9

minimize life threatening muscle spasms postrecovery

Question 10

Preferred anesthetic regimens in giraffidae?

Answer 10

Opioid-ketamine-_2-agonist combination (F861)

Question 11

Resedation is a concern with which anesthetic drug in giraffidae?

Answer 11

Medetomidine (W58)

Question 12

Which of the following are signs of medetomidine resedation in giraffe? A. Shallow respiration B. Excessive licking C. Muscle tremors D. Regurgitation E. Pupil constriction

Answer 12

Which of the following are signs of medetomidine resedation in giraffe? A. Shallow respiration B. Excessive licking C. Muscle tremors D. Regurgitation E. Pupil constriction (W58)

Question 13

Okapi are prone to what anesthetic adverse effects?

Answer 13

regurgitation (esp with acepromazine), post anesthesia GI ileus, hypothermia, hypoventilation (F861, W58)

Question 14

What drug is contraindicated in Okapis due to regurgitation?

Answer 14

Acepromazine (F861)

Question 15

Preferred recumbency for Okapi?

Answer 15

Sternal, head above rumen, nose down. NEVER dorsal recumbency because stimulates regurgitation (W58)

Question 16

How does depth of immobilization differ with ketamine-medetomidine vs opioid based combos in Okapi?

Answer 16

Still aware and can kick/flee with ketamine-medetomidine (in contrast to opoid combos) (W58)

Question 17

Which giraffidae species has variations of chromosome numbers? How many?

Answer 17

Okapia johnstoni, 3 variations (44, 45, 46) that successfully breed (F861)

Question 18

What drug allowed okapi to carry full term fetus after multiple abortions?

Answer 18

Altrenogest (F861)

Question 19

Superior contraception in female giraffidae?

Answer 19

Deslorelin (F861)

Question 20

Giraffidae preshipment guidelines?

Answer 20

1. fecal parasite sample (esp nematode) + culture (esp salmonell) 2. TB test 3. CBC/chem 4. vaccines seldom performed (F861)

Question 21

Key pathologic finding for peracute mortality syndrome in giraffes?

Answer 21

Serous atrophy of fat, emaciation (ZP5)

Question 22

Underlying cause of peracture mortality syndrome in giraffes?

Answer 22

Negative energy balance from insufficient nutrition (large amount of grasses/grass hay aka grazer diet) or dental disease –> last straw event trigering death usually hypothermia or stress (ZP5, ACZM short course 2020 Julie Swenson lecture)

Question 23

List differences between managed and free-ranging giraffe dental wear

Answer 23

Managed giraffe - typical of grazers, rounded cusp of PM/M (diets are too abrasive, higher in silica, low in browse and alfalfa, higher in grass hay and pelleted compounds). Free-ranging giraffes - typical of browsers, sharp cusps PM/M (ZP5, ACZM short course 2020 notes with Julie Swenson)

Question 24

Common sequelea of feeding grazer diet in giraffe?

Answer 24

Phytobezoar formation and GI obstruction (less effective partical reduction), peracute mortality syndrome, urolithiasis, hoof disease, rumen acidosis (ZP5, F861, ACZM short course 2020 Julie Swenson)

Question 25

Most common type of uroliths in giraffe and cause?

Answer 25

Carbonate or apatite with struvite shell, secondary to high dietary phosphorus and concentrate (grazer diet) (ZP5, ACZM short course 2020 Julie Swenson)

Question 26

Where are lesions associated with giraffe skin disease most common?

Answer 26

Bilateral palmar aspects of carpi most common - suspect associated with soil because of distribution; other less common sites - brisket region, hindlimbs, vulva (ZP5)

Question 27

Left-sided congestive heart failure is associated with what condition in Okapi?

Answer 27

Pregnancy (ZP5, F861)

Question 28

Cause of rectal prolapse and stenosis in young, captive Okapi?

Answer 28

Excessive grooming (tongue insertion) by dams, causes rectal erosion and eventual stricture (ZP5)

Question 29

Urinary abnormality associated with Okapi that has an unknown etiology?

Answer 29

Asymptomatic glucosuria - no correlation with insulin/glucose/fructosamine (F861)

Question 30

Chronic interstitial nephritis in Okapi is associated with what causative agent?

What are the lesions sen on histology?

Answer 30

Willow (Salix sp) ingestion (ZP5, F861)

Okapi in European & NA zoos

Histo – tubular atrophy, degeneration, interstitial fibrosis and mononuclear cell interstitial nephritis – thickening of tubular basement membrane & hyaline and granular cast formation, glomeruli less involved but can have thickened basement membranes

Tubular insult – toxicosis from willow (Salix spp) is thought to be a possible etiology.

Question 31

Primary lesion in Okapi interstitial nephritis?

Answer 31

Renal tubular atrophy (ZP5)

Question 32

Which giraffidae species is suceptible to bluetongue?

Answer 32

Okapi, giraffes are NOT susceptible to bluetongue (ZP5, F861)

Question 33

What infectious diseae is the cause of the lesions on the skin of this giraffe?

Answer 33

Bovine papillomavirus 1&2

Question 34

What OIE reportable diseases have been reported in giraffidae?

Answer 34

Burcella aborus/suis, Coxiella burnetii (Q fever), Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), Mycobacteria bovis/tuberculosis, Capripoxvirus (Lumpy skin disease), Rinderpest, Equine herpesvirus type 1 and 9 (ZP5)

Question 35

What lesions are more pronounced in giraffes with Rinderpest compared to other animals?

Answer 35

Ocular lesions (corneal opacity/ulcer, uveitis, cataracts), also giraffes are VERY susceptible to rinderpest (ZP5)

Question 36

Most common/important GIT parasite in giraffidae?

Answer 36

Abomasal trchostrongyles (nematodes) (F861)

Question 37

Haemonchus contortus/placei in giraffidae is associated with what clinical signs?

Answer 37

Anemia/hypoproteinemia and eventual ascites/hydrothorax, NOT diarrhea despite being abomasal nematode (ZP5)

Question 38

Resistance to anthelmintics in giraffe has been shown in what parasite

Answer 38

Haemonchus spp (contortus/placei), copper oxide wire particles effective alternative treatment (suspect copper deficiency predisposes ruminants) (ZP5, F861)

Question 39

A novel species of what parasite was found in erythrocytes in free-ranging giraffes?

Answer 39

Babesia, caused hemoglobinuria, link between infection and death not established (ZP5)

Question 40

What organism is pictured in this giraffe blood smear?

Answer 40

Theileria - schizonts in leukocytes, piroplasms in erythrocytes; usually subclinical (ZP5)

Question 41

What two protzoan species have been found in normal free-ranging giraffes?

Answer 41

Toxoplasma gondii, Cytauxzoon spp (F861, ZP5)

Question 42

What are the lesions associated with giraffe skin disease?

How do they progress over time?

What is the etiology?

Answer 42

• Proliferative and crusting skin lesions in Tanzania may exceed 90% of observed individuals
• Lesions – palmar aspect of the carpi, less commonly skin of the brisket, hindlimbs, or vulva
• Early lesions are small nodules that coalese to form large plaques which scale, crust, and fissure
• Etiology remains to be identified

Question 43

What can result from excessive grooming of a giraffe calf by its mother?

Answer 43

• Netherlands and NA zoos
• Dilation of orad rectum and colon and accumulation of obstipative fecal material
• Excessive grooming by dams with insertion of tongue into the rectum is proposed etiology
• Results in rectal erosion, ulceration, and eventual strictures

Question 44

A recent study compared the use of medetomidine-ketamine and medetomidine-ketamine-opioid protocols in Giraffes.

How common is anesthetic related mortality in giraffes historically?

How was inductino between the two protocols?

What were the most common complications?
- Were there any complications specific to a given protocol?

How did physiologic parameters differ between the two groups?

Answer 44

Delk, K. W., Mama, K. R., Rao, S., Radcliffe, R. W., & Lamberski, N. (2019).
Comparison of anesthesia of adult giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) using medetomidine-ketamine with and without a potent opioid.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 50(2), 457-460.

Abstract: Two anesthetic protocols in adult giraffe were compared by retrospective study. Thirteen anesthesia records for medetomidine-ketamine (MK) and seven for medetomidine-ketamine with a potent opioid (MKO) were evaluated for differences in demographic, behavioral, drug, and respiratory parameters. Giraffe stood significantly more quickly with MKO vs MK though MK animals were physically restrained to preclude premature standing as part of normal recovery practices (5.5 min vs 21.4 min, P = 0.01). Regurgitation was recorded in 5/13 and resedation in 4/13 MK animals. The range of values for blood lactate was higher in MKO (5.18–11.25 mM/L) than in MK giraffe (0.78–6.08 mM/L). Despite limitations of a retrospective study, both MK and MKO giraffe anesthesia protocols exhibit benefits and side effects. Awareness and management of these factors will improve outcomes until standardized, prospective studies of giraffe immobilization offer more comprehensive guidance on protocol selection.

• Historic anesthesia-related mortality rates in captive giraffe > 10%
• Purpose: Compare induction and recovery quality and physiological effects after anesthetic induction using med/ ket or med/ ket/ opioid in captive adult giraffe
• Retrospective study: anesthesia records from captive reticulated and Rothschild giraffe
• Both medetomidine and ketamine dosages were significantly higher when used without an opioid (butorphanol + thiafentanil or etorphine)
• Time to initial effects/ recumbency similar between protocols
• No significant difference in need for supplemental drugs between two protocols
• Most common complications in met/ ket was regurgitation and a single post-anesthetic death due to ileus and bloat
• Opioid protocols had significantly shorter time to standing though med/ ket protocols utilized manual restraint to delay time to standing
• Significantly higher incidence of resedation with med/ ket (none observed w/ opioids)
  – Suspect secondary to higher medetomidine dose
• Subjectively, PaCO2 elevated in med/ ket protocol despite higher resp rate potentially contributing to hypoxemia

Takeaways:
- Higher incidence of resedation in MK group, different recovery times
- Clinically relevant differences in RR and PaCO2 (RR and paCO2 higher in MK group)
- Lung damaged and hypoxemia reported in small ruminants following a2 administration, supported O2 administration in this species. Recommended tracheal intubation and ventilation in both protocols.
- Both med/ ket and med/ ket/ opioid protocols provided safe immobilizations
- Close observation and potential re-administration of atipamezole recommended for protocols utilizing high medetomidine doses

Question 45

A recent study described repeated anesthesia in an okapi.

What are some of the common complications of anesthesia in okapi?

What are some of the common complications with ultrapotent opioids?

What protocols were used?

How did inductions differ with the one versus two dart protocols?

Is there a significant difference between thiafentanil and carfentanil in this species?

Answer 45

McFarland, A., Mama, K. R., Kinney, M. E., Thurber, M. I., Clancy, M. M., Lamberski, N., … & Howard, L. L. (2020).
Repeated use of a thiafentanil-based anesthesia protocol in an okapi (Okapia johnstoni).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 50(4), 993-996.

Brief Communication:
Abstract: Seven anesthesia events were performed over 6 wk on a 1.5-yr-old female okapi (Okapia johnstoni) being managed for a fetlock injury. A combination of butorphanol (B) (median; range) (0.045; 0.031–0.046 mg/kg), medetomidine (M) (0.037; 0.031–0.037 mg/kg), ketamine (K) (0.553; 0.536–1.071 mg/kg), and thiafentanil (T) (0.0045; 0.0040–0.0046 mg/kg) was administered in a padded stall. One dart containing all drugs was used for the first two anesthesias. Subsequently, BM was administered 10 min prior to KT using two darts. Time (median; range) from initial injection to first effects (6; 3–7 min) and recumbency (14; 4–20 min) were recorded. Induction quality with the one-dart protocol was poor or fair and was good or excellent with the two-dart protocol. Following recumbency, the okapi was intubated and ventilated, and physiological parameters were recorded. Anesthesia was consistently achieved with BMKT, but induction was smoother with the staged two-dart approach. Neither resedation nor renarcotization was observed post-reversal.

Key Points
- Anesthetic complications are a primary cause of mortality in adult captive okapi and include hypoventilation, regurgitation, aspiration of rumen contents, and postanesthesia gastrointestinal ileus. Falling backward, opisthotonus, paddling also reported during induction.
- Side effects of ultrapotent opioids – Hypoventilation.
- Thiafentanil reported to have reduced potency but shorter time to onset vs carfentanil in other spp.

Takeaway:
- Two-dart protocol (butorphanol-medetomidine/ketamine-thiafentanil) recommended for smoother induction using BMKT for anesthesia in Okapi.
- Thiafentanil can be used as an alternative to carfentanil when combined with BMK in this spp.

Question 46

A recent study described the common foot pathologies of zoo-housed giraffe.

What are some of the documented diseases of the hoof in this species?
- What arthropathies are documented?
- What osteopathies are documented?
- What soft tissue injuries are common?

What radiographic projections are recommended to monitor foot health in giraffe?

What is the most common pathologiec finding?

What other zoo-housed hooftock species have this pathology?

What changes were made to the husbandry of the giraffe in this zoo?

Answer 46

Dadone, L., Olea-Popelka, F., Stout, E., Foxworth, S., Klaphake, E., Johnston, M. S., … & Barrett, M. (2019).
CLINICAL CONDITIONS FOUND RADIOGRAPHICALLY IN THE FRONT FEET OF RETICULATED GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS RETICULATA) IN A SINGLE ZOO.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 50(3), 528-538.

Abstract: Front foot radiographs from 22 giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) at one zoo were analyzed to better understand causes of lameness in this giraffe population. The herd had a history of front hoof overgrowth and intermittent lameness. Radiographic findings included distal interphalangeal joint osteoarthritis (OA), distal phalangeal bone (P3) osteitis, P3 fractures, P3 rotation, and sesamoid bone cysts. OA of the distal interphalangeal joint occurred in at least one front foot of 73% (16/22 giraffe) of the herd, and all giraffe had OA by 7 yr of age. Pedal osteitis was present in at least one front foot in 86% (19/22) of the giraffe, starting in animals as young as 1 yr old. P3 fractures were present in 36% (8/22) of the herd. These fractures were near the site of the deep digital flexor attachment and were diagnosed in giraffe as young as 10 yr old. The presence of severe osteitis was associated with the presence of P3 fractures. This study is unique in that a large herd was trained to participate in voluntary front foot radiographs so multiple causes of foot disease could be diagnosed antemortem and without anesthesia. Although the underlying causes of these lesions are likely multifactorial and currently unknown to us, the high prevalence of foot disease in relatively young animals warrants further investigation across zoos. In this study, OA, osteitis, and P3 fractures were common radiographic findings among giraffe that were limping. Subsequent monitoring and management changes suggest that proactive management of foot health can decrease morbidity and mortality in zoo giraffe.

Key Points:
- Hoof concerns are common in zoo giraffe – leading to additional anesthetic events and sometimes euthanasia
- Diseases of the hoof include – overgrowth, laminitis, pododermatitis, foreign bodies
- Giraffe arthropathies - cartilage damage, mycoplasma-associated polyarthritis, osteroarthritis, osteochondrosis, pigmented villonodular synovitis, septic or ulcerative arthritis
- Giraffe osteopathies – bone cysts, distal phalangeal fractures, osteolysis, pedal osteitis, periosteal reactions, rotation of distal phalangeal bone
- Soft tissue injuries – interdigitial dermatitis, ligament injuries, tenosynovitis, neurologic disease, trauma
- Every front foot – mL and DMPLO profections
- Higher risk of P3 fractures with increasing severity of pedal osteitis (36% of herd had at least one)
– P3 fractures also seen in kudu
– Most fractures involved the articular surface
- P3 rotation was found in 66% of the herd (hoof overgrowth leading to hyperextension of DIJ)
- Hoof overgrowth in zoo giraffe – abnormal conformation, nutritional imbalances, inappropriate substrate, trauma
- Adjustments made as result of this study – foot trims every 4-8 weeks, rubberized floor replaced concrete in the barn, romaine lettuce for public feedings instead of crisps

Take home:
- Foot pathology is common in zoo-housed giraffe.
- Most frequent lesions include OA of the DIJ, pedal osteitis leading to fracture of the palmar process of the distal phalanx.

Question 47

A recent study investigated cutaneous filariasis in free-ranging Giraffes in Uganda.

What parasites are known to cause this?

What pathology was seen on histo?

How were they treated? How did it respond?

Answer 47

Whittier, C. A., Murray, S., Holder, K., McGraw, S., Fleischer, R., Cortes-Rodriguez, N., … & Atimnedi, P. (2020).
Cutaneous Filariasis in Free-Ranging Rothschild’s Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi) in Uganda.
Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 56(1), 234-238.

Abstract: Across Africa, wild giraffes suffer from a variety of skin disorders of mostly unknown etiology. With their populations already threatened from anthropogenic factors, it is important to understand infectious disease risks to giraffes. Here we describe filarid parasites and a portion of their genetic sequence associated with skin disease in Rothschild’s giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi) in Uganda.

Key Points:
* ~⅓ of giraffes at Murchison Falls National Park (MFNP) in Uganda had rash like lesions of unknown etiology
* 7 giraffes from MFNP with skin lesions were immobilized and sampled (biopsy, skin scraping, blood work, etc)
* Histopath in all 7 cases showed severe, chronic, regionally extensive, eosinophilic, neutrophilic dermatitis with intralesional adult or larval microfliarid nematodes
* Partial sequence data most similar to Onchocerca sp and Protospirura
* 4 affected giraffes treated with ivermectin, all animals showed visual resolution of lesions after 4 mo

Question 48

A recent study described the hand rearing of zoo-housed giraffe calves.

How common is neonatal giraffe mortality?

What milk substitutes can be used?

When shoudl they be weaned?

Answer 48

Meuffels, J., Ververs, C., Pootoolal, J., van Zijll Langhout, M., & Govaere, J. (2019).
Growth, husbandry, and diets of five successfully hand-reared orphaned giraffe calves (giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi and giraffa camelopardalis reticulata).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 50(1), 205-218.

Abstract: Giraffe in the wild are in ongoing decline because of poaching and habitat loss and fragmentation, and were recently assessed as ‘‘vulnerable’’ on the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List of Threatened Species. Captive breeding and saving each individual are therefore becoming more important to save this species from extinction. This paper describes the husbandry and diets of successfully hand-reared Rothschild’s giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi; n = 3) and reticulated giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata; n = 2). All calves were initially fed with bovine colostrum followed by cow’s milk (Holstein milk; Holstein milk with 10% of bovine colostrum; Jersey and Guernsey milk). Additionally, lactase enzymes (Lactaidt, Johnson & Johnson Inc., Guelp, Ontario N1K1A5, Canada) and probiotics (Probiost, Vets Plus, Inc., Menomonie, WI 54751, USA) were used. Average growth varied from 764 to 1,239 g/day from birth until 2 mo of age and between 508 and 1,161 g/day from birth until last measurement before weaning. Hand-reared calves gained up to 21 cm in height within the first month and 82–138% of their birth weight during the first 2 mo. The giraffes were weaned at 6 (n = 1), 8 (n = 3), and 11.5 (n = 1) mo and successfully socialized and introduced to other giraffes. The described diets and husbandry proved to be effective in all five calves. Large amounts of cow’s milk per feeding (up to 6 L) did not result in gastrointestinal problems.

Key Points
* Neonatal giraffe calves have ~50% mortality rate
* Maternal rejection common, especially in captivity
* Hand rearing is difficult, time consuming, and labor-intensive

Takeaways:
* Cow’s milk and colostrum successfully used to raise giraffes from birth
* If newborn refuses to suckle, colostrum should be tube fed
* Daily milk intake of 7-10% body weight recommended until weaning
* Weaning should be gradual and typically takes place at 7-9 mo
* Average daily growth between 800-900g/dL until 1 yr or age recommended
* Current cases did not support theory that hand-raised animals are higher risk to humans, if anything they were potentially more tractable
* Adequate conspecific socialization is key

Question 49

A recent study used photogrammetry to evaluate the severity of giraffe skin disease.

Describe the progression of giraffe skin disease.

What is the etiology?

Which legs were the lesions more prevalent on?

Answer 49

Muneza, A. B., Ortiz-Calo, W., Packer, C., Cusack, J. J., Jones, T., Palmer, M. S., … & Montgomery, R. A. (2019).
Quantifying the severity of giraffe skin disease via photogrammetry analysis of camera trap data.
Journal of wildlife diseases, 55(4), 770-781.

ABSTRACT: Developing techniques to quantify the spread and severity of diseases afflicting wildlife populations is important for disease ecology, animal ecology, and conservation. Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) are in the midst of a dramatic decline, but it is not known whether disease is playing an important role in the broad-scale population reductions. A skin disorder referred to as giraffe skin disease (GSD) was recorded in 1995 in one giraffe population in Uganda. Since then, GSD has been detected in 13 populations in seven African countries, but good descriptions of the severity of this disease are not available. We photogrammetrically analyzed camera trap images from both Ruaha and Serengeti National parks in Tanzania to quantify GSD severity. Giraffe skin disease afflicts the limbs of giraffes in Tanzania, and we quantified severity by measuring the vertical length of the GSD lesion in relation to the total leg length. Applying the Jenks natural breaks algorithm to the lesion proportions that we derived, we classified individual giraffes into disease categories (none, mild, moderate, and severe). Scaling up to the population level, we predicted the proportion of the Ruaha and Serengeti giraffe populations with mild, moderate, and severe GSD. This study serves to demonstrate that camera traps presented an informative platform for examinations of skin disease ecology

Key Points:
- Photogrammetry, the quantification of photographic images, used to evaluate severity of giraffe skin disease (GSD)
- Giraffe skin disease first presents as small nodules on the skin where the hair becomes raised.
– These nodules develop into scabs that harden and develop into dry, scaly patches.
– As the disease progresses, the skin becomes itchy and then wrinkles to form large, grayish, alopecic lesions +/- fissure with purulent discharge
- Currently an emerging disease, seen in wild populations, etiology unknown though filarial worms though to possibly play a role in transmission
- Set up camera traps in Ruaha National Park and Serengeti National Park
- Lesions of GSD were more prevalent on the front legs than the back legs in both the Ruaha population (48%, 128/267) and the Serengeti population (56%, 83/148).
- Postulated that this could be due to the fact that they can ward off biting insects that may carry filarial worms with their tail, but front legs are more susceptible
- There was no case in which a giraffe had lesions on the hind legs but not on the front legs
- Only 10 giraffe images from the camera trap data displayed signs of GSD on more than two legs
– Mild: 0-16.1% of the leg affected, Moderate 16.2-25% affected, severe <25%
- Ruaha had 2x the prevalence of severe lesions compared to Serengeti
- Prevalence of moderate lesions was comparable between the locations
- This study validated a non-invasive quantitative method of evaluating skin disease in wildlife

Question 50

A recent study investigated the effects of increased hay-to-gran ratios on behavior and health in managed giraffe.

What behavioral changes were seen in this study?

What health benefits were noted?

Answer 50

Monson, M. L., Dennis, P. M., Lukas, K. E., Krynak, K. L., Carrino‐Kyker, S. R., Burke, D. J., & Schook, M. W. (2018).
The effects of increased hay‐to‐grain ratio on behavior, metabolic health measures, and fecal bacterial communities in four Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo.
Zoo biology, 37(5), 320-331.

Abstract: We evaluated whether increasing the hay-to-grain ratio offered to Masai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) at Cleveland Metroparks Zoo would reduce oral stereotypies and alter feeding behaviors, maintain or increase serum calcium- to-phosphorus ratio, decrease serum insulin-to-glucose ratio and salivary insulin, and alter fecal bacterial community structure. Giraffe transitioned to a ∼90:10 hay- to-grain ratio in even increments over 8 weeks. A ration balancer was added during the seventh week of transition to ensure proper mineral and nutrient balance. We collected (1) behavioral data collected approximately daily using instantaneous focal sampling; (2) serum collections every other week for insulin-to-glucose and calcium- to-phosphorus ratio analysis and saliva weekly for insulin analysis; and (3) weekly fecal sample collections to examine changes in bacterial community structure during the 8 weeks preceding and following the diet change. After the diet change, giraffe spent significantly more time feeding and less time performing tongue and mouth stereotypies, people-directed and alert behaviors. Salivary and serum insulin and serum insulin-to-glucose ratio decreased, and fecal bacterial community structure changed significantly. However, serum calcium-to-phosphorus ratio remained >1:1 throughout the study. While further studies are needed to elucidate the nature and implications of the change in fecal bacterial community structure and metabolic hormones, the results of this study show promise for incremental improvements in health and welfare from feeding a higher proportion of forage in the diet.

• Increased hay to grain – decreases stereotypies, salivary & serum insulin, & insulin:glucose ratios
• Fecal bacterial communities changed with this diet changes

Take Home: More hay – healthier & better behaviors

Question 51

A recent study investigated contrafreeloading in zoo-housed giraffe.

What is contrafreeloading?

How did giraffe in this study react to the addition of complex feeders?

Did it work on every individual?

Answer 51

Sasson‐Yenor, J., & Powell, D. M. (2019).
Assessment of contrafreeloading preferences in giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis).
Zoo biology, 38(5), 414-423.

Abstract: Contrafreeloading is an intriguing phenomenon in which animals will work to obtain resources, such as food, when the same resource is simultaneously freely available. Multiple hypotheses exist for why animals might choose to contrafreeload. In this study, we assessed preferences for contrafreeloading in giraffe at the Bronx Zoo to determine whether they actually preferred to contrafreeload or were simply demonstrating a willingness to contrafreeload. Food was presented in a range of distributions between an easily accessed feeding device and a more challenging one and the giraffes’ feeding behavior at these two types of feeding devices was recorded. As the experiments progressed, more giraffe used these more challenging feeders. There was significant individual variation in the expression of preference for contrafreeloading and willingness to contrafreeload. Individual, phase of the experiment, and an interaction between these factors were significant predictors of challenge feeder use. Three foraging strategies emerged among the giraffe that we termed “freeloaders,” “contrafreeloaders,”and “opportunists.” The results of this study demonstrate that multiple indices of preference are necessary when assessing contrafreeloading behavior, and that giraffe are affected to different degrees by the factors that stimulate contrafreeloading. These results may shed light on why different individuals use complex feeding enrichment devices to varying extents.

• Managed giraffes have high prevalence of oral stereotypies – tongue movements to eat hay or grain are much simpler than what is needed in the wild
• Goal of the study is to see if giraffes would choose to eat out of the complicated feeders
• Individual preferences – some giraffes always went for the easy feeders, others chose the complex feeders when there wasn’t much feed, others preferentially chose the complicated feeders
• The complex feeders required giraffes to extend their tongues further out which reduce the surface area to pick up grain which makes them take about twice the amount of time to eat
• Dominance in the herd did not indicate which individuals chose what pattern

Take home: Complex feeders can be offered as a way to decrease stereotypies – there are multiple strategies the animals will take in feeding behavior preferences.

Question 52

A recent study described the sleep patterns of managed giraffe.

How do herbivores compare to carnivores in terms of sleep?

What are the three sleeping positions of giraffe?

How long do giraffes spend in each type of sleep? Does this change with wild giraffe?

What were the effects of season and parturition on giraffe sleep?

Answer 52

Takagi, N., Saito, M., Ito, H., Tanaka, M., & Yamanashi, Y. (2019).
Sleep‐related behaviors in zoo‐housed giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata): Basic characteristics and effects of season and parturition.
Zoo Biology, 38(6), 490-497.

Despite increasing interest in the behavior of zoo animals, studies of nocturnal behavior of zoo animals are limited. In this study, we investigated the relationship between parturition, season, and the sleep‐related behaviors in captive reticulated giraffes to better understand the nocturnal life in giraffes. The subjects were two adult reticulated giraffes living in Kyoto City Zoo, Japan. Observations were made via an infrared camera that was mounted in the indoor enclosure between June 2007 and August 2009. We analyzed video clips that were recorded between 16:30 and 09:00 the next morning, over a total of 199 days. Sleep‐related behaviors were classified into two categories based on the posture of the giraffes; recumbent posture and paradoxical sleep. We also recorded the laterality of recumbent posture, which was coded based on the direction of the legs against the torso (right or left). Seasonal differences in sleep behaviors between summer and winter were observed in both individuals. They tended to start to lie down earlier in the winter than in the summer. Parturition also affected the behaviors as both individuals decreased the behaviors before and after the parturition of the female. Additionally, the female lay on her left side less frequently than her right when resuming a recumbent posture in the pre‐parturition period, while such laterality was not observed in the baseline and post‐parturition period. These results suggested that season and parturition are important factors for determining the sleep‐related behaviors in giraffes. Further studies are needed to understand how these changes in sleep affect other welfare parameters.

• Sleep characteristics
  – Herbivores sleep less than omnivores and carnivores
  – Duration of sleep is negatively correlated with body size
• Categories:
  – Standing sleep - motionless standing posture
  – Recumbent sleep - lying on brisket and abdomen or flank with legs folded under and slightly displaced to the side without any movement
  – Paradoxical sleep - neck bent backward in recumbent posture and rested on flank of a rear leg (paradoxical sleep characterized by general loss of voluntary muscle tone)
• Giraffes: total (all 3 types) 4.6 hr, PS episodes less than 3 min duration
  – Wild giraffes: recumbent part of every night and PS lasting ~5.5 min
• 3 peaks in recumbency throughout the night
  – 7-9 hr per night in recumbency
  – 2-3 recumbent episodes 11 min-3 hr duration
  – PS 11.8 min duration, avg 4.3 times per night, most often around midnight
  – Positive correlation between recumbency and PS
• Winter: duration of each recumbency episode was longer
  – PS duration and number of events per night were also higher in the female
  – Lying down earlier in the winter than summer
• Parturition: number and duration of recumbency (sig) and PS (trend) events was less pre- and post-parturition
  – Pattern was consistent between 2 births but effect size was smaller in 2nd birth
  – Left recumbency was significantly decreased during pre-parturition compared to right
  – Male recumbency was similarly affected by parturition with effect size also smaller for 2nd birth

Takeaways
- Both season and parturition affect sleep behaviors in captive giraffes
– Winter increased recumbency and PS episodes, started earlier in the evening
– Parturition decreased recumbency and PS in males and females
– Females favored right lateral recumbency in late pregnancy
– 3 recumbency peaks throughout the night, positive correlation between recumbency and paradoxical sleep

Question 53

A recent study evaluated the biopryn ELISA for detecting pregnancy specific protein-b in Okapi.

What is the scientific name of the Okapi?

What is the estimated length of gestation in Okapi?

How did this test perform?
- Did it vary with length of gestation at the time of the test?

Answer 53

PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS IN OKAPI (OKAPIA JOHNSTONI) USING BIOPRYN ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY FOR DETECTION OF PREGNANCY-SPECIFIC PROTEIN-B (PSPB)
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 52(1): 306–309, 2021

Abstract: Banked serum samples from seven okapi (Okapia johnstoni) with known pregnancy status were evaluated using the BioPRYN wild enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB). Thirty-six serum samples, 18 from known pregnant and 18 from nonpregnant okapi, were analyzed. Using optical density cutoffs, the BioPRYN wild assay demonstrated a sensitivity of 88% (95% confidence interval, 65%–98%) and a specificity of 100% (95% confidence interval, 81%–100%). In one sample, this test confirmed pregnancy as early as 21 days of gestation; however, two pregnant okapi were reported to be not pregnant at 23 and 38 days of gestation, suggesting sensitivity may be lower in early gestation. Sensitivity improved to 100% when samples were evaluated in okapi at 116 days or greater of gestation. Analysis of PSPB can be used to augment pregnancy diagnosis in okapi, a species that is of high conservation value and has documented pregnancyassociated morbidity

Key Points
- Okapi are endangered, knowledge of pregnancy status is important for animal husbandry and veterinary care
- Low stress test methods are preferable
- The aim of this study is to evaluate a blood-based test to augment previously established methods of pregnancy diagnosis in okapi.
- 36 banked serum samples (18 known pregnant, 18 known not pregnant) were evaluated using the BioPRYN wild enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB)
- Length of gestation was determined by subtracting 425 days (assumed gestation length for all pregnant okapi in this study) from the calving date
- Sensitivity was 88% (95% confidence interval, 65%–98%), and specificity was 100% (95% confidence interval, 81%–100%).
- Sensitivity improved to 100% when samples were evaluated in okapi at 116 days or greater of gestation.
- Test accuracy was 94% (confidence interval, 81%–99%).
- Pregnancy was detected using this assay as early as 21 days of gestation and as late as 284 days of gestation.
- The specificity, sensitivity, and accuracy of the BioPRYN Wild assay in okapi was similar to American bison
- Compared with trans-rectal or trans-cutaneous ultrasonography, PSPB detection in blood requires no specialize training or equipment and can be performed retrospectively on banked samples.

Takeaway: This study demonstrates a blood-based pregnancy assay that detects PSPB has high sensitivity (88%) and specificity (100%) when banked okapi serum stored at 70C for up to 10,501 days

Question 54

A recent study described the common neoplasms of managed giraffe.

What is the scientific name of the giraffe?

What was the most common neoplasm in this species?

Were most tumors benign or malignant?
- Were there any more aggressive tumor types detected?

Answer 54

Doden, G., Garner, M. M., Mangus, L. M., & Sander, S. (2021).
A Retrospective survey of neoplasia in managed giraffes (giraffa camelopardalis).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 52(1), 332-336.

Abstract: Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) are commonly managed in zoos and conservation programs worldwide, but the current understanding of the occurrence and progression of neoplastic disease in this species is limited by the scarcity of published reports. This study collated documented cases of neoplasia on the basis of gross and histologic evaluation of ante- and postmortem samples. In total, 30 giraffes from 22 institutions across the United States were included. Subspecies was not reported in all cases, but those identified included Masai (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi), Rothschild (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi), and reticulated subspecies (Giraffe camelopardalis reticulata). Thirteen animals died natural deaths, 15 were euthanized, and 2 were alive at the time of this article. A total of 38 tumors were reported and classified as 18 different diagnoses, including leiomyoma (7), adenoma (4), luteoma (4), lymphoma (4), pheochromocytoma (3), squamous cell carcinoma (3), adenocarcinoma (2), ameloblastic fibroma (1), carcinomatosis of undetermined cell lineage (1), cavernous hemangioma (1), cystic granulosa cell tumor (1), dysgerminoma (1), fibrosarcoma (1), leukemia (1), lipoma (1), pituitary nerve sheath tumor (1), rhabdomyosarcoma (1), and teratoma (1). Multiple concurrent neoplastic lesions were documented in six cases. Mesenchymal tumors (18) were the majority of neoplasms. The most prevalent location, regardless of tumor type, was the female reproductive tract (14). Twenty-four neoplastic lesions were incidental findings at necropsy, whereas eight neoplasms were considered to be the primary cause of death. The findings reported here identify multiple neoplastic lesions in giraffes and could provide insight to the future management of this species.

Key Points
- Giraffe (Giraffa Camelopardalis) – Only extant spp; 9 subspecies ongoing debate.
- IUCN classified as vulnerable.
- Reticulated giraffe subspp is now endangered and Nubian and Kordofan subspp are critically endangered.
- Gross necropsy and histo for managed giraffes with neoplastic lesions reviewed.
- Majority of tumors were in older females > 20 yrs, reproductive tumors, mesenchymal cell origin.
- Others commonly from endocrine or integumentary systems.
- Most neoplastic lesions were incidental, 8 were the cause of death.
– 3 were SCC. SCC commonly affects domestic cattle (close relative to giraffes).
- Leiomyomas most commonly reported neoplasm (benign, repro). Contrast with vulvar and uterine carcinomas in cattle.

Takeaways: Most common neoplasia leiomyomas, majority of tumors in female repro tract.

Question 55

A recent study describes the intensive care of 10 hospitalized neonatal giraffe calves.

What is the scientific name of this species?

How can you confirm passive transfer of immunity in this species?

What were the most common present lab abnormalities in these young giraffes?

What are the recommendations for bovine colustrum suppplementation?

When should hyper-immune bovine plasma be given to giraffe calves?

What diseases were observed (besides FPT) in these hospitalized calves?
- What treatments are recommended?

Answer 55

Neonatal intensive care of 10 hospitalized giraffe calves (Giraffa camelopardalis) requiring hand-rearing.
Dixon CE, Bedenice D, Restifo M, Mazan M, Brewer P, Knafo SE.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine. 2021;52(1):57-66

This retrospective case series describes the clinicopathologic findings, diagnoses, treatment, and outcomes of 10 hand-reared newborn giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) calves admitted to a university teaching hospital for intensive care. Ten calves (five males, five females; nine reticulated giraffes [Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata], one Masai giraffe [G. c. tippelskirchi]), were admitted under 2 days of age. Inadequate transfer of passive immunity was suspected in 5 of 10 calves based on assessment of serum total solids and globulin values. These calves were treated with oral frozen bovine colostrum and/or intravenous hyperimmune bovine plasma. Diarrhea occurred in 6 of 10 calves and was managed with supportive care, fecal microbiota transplantation, and limiting milk intake (offering 10% body weight [BW] in milk per day, while feeding <2 L per meal at 2- to 4-hr intervals). Less common diagnoses included pneumonia (n = 3) and mycoplasma-associated septic arthritis (n = 1). Eight calves received systemic antimicrobial therapy. Hyperlactatemia (lactate > 5 mmol/L; n = 8) and hypercreatininemia (creatinine > 2.0 mg/dl, n = 7) were the most common presenting laboratory abnormalities, which resolved with intravenous fluid therapy. All neonatal giraffes survived to discharge after a median hospitalization of 9.5 days (range, 5–37 days) and were successfully hand-reared at their place of birth. In conclusion, neonatal giraffe calves can be intensively managed in a hospital environment. Diarrhea was a common clinical problem and can be related to feeding regimens. Intravenous hyperimmune bovine plasma infusion was well tolerated to manage failure of transfer of passive immunity in calves with inadequate colostrum administration. The current study supports that compromised neonatal giraffe calves may carry an excellent prognosis after early, intensive intervention.

• Passive transfer of immunity was based on history of colostrum administration + TS > 6 g/dL and/or globulins > 2.5 g/dL at 24 hr old
  – GGT variable < 50 U/L was consistent with FPT - not affected by hydration status
• Transient hyperlactatemia and high creatinine were most common presenting lab abnormalities
  – Ddx volume depletion, peripartum (fetal fluid ingestion, placental dysfunction), lower GFR in giraffe than horses and cattle
• Bovine colostrum supplementation recc: 4-5% BW within 2 hr of life, then 6-10% BW per day
  – Ideally minimum 150g IgG within 2 hr of life (bovine calf recc)
  – Restrict volume to 2L/feed or <10% BW per day to avoid GI upset
  – Fecal microbiota transplant via NG tube or bottle fed in milk - good response
  – Giraffe milk has higher protein and fat, lower carb than goat and bovine milk replacer
  – Avg weight gain 0.7 kg/day (prev reports 0.7-1.25 kg/day over first 2-5 mo)
• Hyper-immune bovine plasma IV to giraffe calves if colostrum intake was delayed beyond 12 hr
  – 17-37 ml/kg IV rate < 30 ml/kg/hr was not associated with adverse transfusion reactions
• One case mycoplasma-associated septic arthritis - possibly unpasteurized frozen bovine colostrum (M. bovis) or exposure within home giraffe herd
• White muscle disease previously reported from low selenium and/or vitamin E (high CK)
  – Supplement Se 0.05-0.06 mg/kg, Vit E 2.3-3.2 mg/kg Im or SQ once + 16 IU/kg/day oral Vit E
• No complications with IV catheter in place for up to 3 weeks
• High incidence of diarrhea, pneumonia, and suspected FTP
• Most calves treated with ceftiofur or Pen G with amikacin, gentamicin, or enrofloxacin
• All calves survived to discharge and weaned without long-term complications (18 mo follow-up)
• High incidence of diarrhea, pneumonia, and suspected FTP
• Transient hyperlactatemia and high creatinine common lab findings
• Recc bovine colostrum supplementation or IV hyper-immune bovine plasma, Se and Vit E supplementation

Question 56

A recent study investigated the trichuris species that infect giraffes.

What are the two most common Trichuris species that affect these animals?

Answer 56

JZWM 2022 53(2) 383-392
DETECTION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF TRICHURIS IN GIRAFFE (GIRAFFA CAMELOPARDALIS) UNDER HUMAN CARE

Abstract
Trichuris spp. are nematode parasites infecting many species, including domestic and wild ruminants in zoological and wildlife parks worldwide. These nematodes cause significant morbidity in giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) and other hoofstock. Parasite transmission between ruminant species is well reported; however, relative to domestic species, little is known about Trichuris infections in giraffes under human care. We hypothesized that Trichuris spp. differ between individual giraffes in different US regions, suggesting giraffes are susceptible to Trichuris from other ruminant hosts. The study sites used to assess this hypothesis included The Wilds in Cumberland, Ohio; Fossil Rim Wildlife Center in Glen Rose, Texas; White Oak Conservation in Yulee, Florida; and Binder Park Zoo in Battle Creek, Michigan. Trichuris eggs were collected from the feces of 14 individual giraffes located at the four different study sites and from soil samples from the enclosures where Trichuris-positive giraffes were housed. The eggs were isolated and their genes were amplified by PCR and compared at the molecular level. Trichuris samples from four giraffe hosts and one soil site were sequenced and portions of the cox1 and 18S genes compared. This study found that >12 eggs per gram of fecal-derived Trichuris eggs must be present to amplify Trichuris-specific DNA. The Trichuris spp. found in the majority of giraffes in this study were most similar to T. ovis and T. discolor, and one giraffe sample had greater similarity to T. skrjabini and T. leporis.

Key Points
- All whipworm eggs have polar plugs, elliptical shape and brown hue; patent infx can be difficult to detect; FEC do not reflect worm burden (can be low or high with a high worm burden)
- T. ovis, T. discolor - ruminants; T. trichura - humans, T. suis - swine; T. vulpis - canids
- Trichuris has caused chronic morbidity in both giraffe and sable antelope at TW
- Greater than 99% similarity in all giraffe to T. ovis and T. discolor
- One giraffe at Fossil Rim had >99% similarity for T. leporis and T. skrjabini

Take home message
- Most Trichuris sequenced are most similar to T. ovis and T. discolor, but mixed infections cannot be ruled out

Question 57

A recent study investigated the causes of mandibular fractures in giraffe in Europe.

What was the suspected husbandry item causing these fractures?
- What size should be avoided?

How were these giraffes managed?
- what nerve blocks should be performe dif undergoing surgery?

Answer 57

JZWM 2022 53(2):448-454
Mandibular Fractures In Giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) In European Zoos
Remport L, Sós-Koroknai V, Hoitsy M, Sós E

ABSTRACT: Following a case of mandibular fracture in a giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) at the Budapest Zoo, a survey was conducted across European zoological institutions with the support of the European Association of Zoos and Aquariums Giraffe Ex situ Programme (EAZA Giraffe EEP) to help identify the incidence, potential causes, and management of such injuries. Two hundred sixteen zoos keeping giraffes were invited to participate in the survey. Eighty-six responses were received, 14 of which (16.3%) reported jaw fractures with various causes in their giraffes. Of these responses, hay racks, where the muzzle of the giraffe could fit between the grid of feeding contraptions, were associated with mandibular fractures in seven cases (50.0%). Most giraffes were managed surgically (10/14; 71.4%), two were managed medically (14.3%), one was euthanized because of the severity of the injury (7.1%), and one was only diagnosed with a mandibular fracture postmortem. One giraffe died owing to postanesthetic complications; all other individuals had a full recovery. Most mandible fractures occurred in relatively young giraffes (between 5 wk and 8 yr with an average of 3.4 yr). Based on these findings, facilities with giraffe should evaluate their hay feeders for mandible entrapment risk, especially if they house young individuals.

Background:
- Between 2012-16, 761 giraffe deaths were reported
– 39% were associated with trauma and 6% with restraint complications
– Large fences, vertical bars, openings in doors/objects can be hazardous
– Giraffe may slip on wet or icy floors, especially those with a slight slope
- 80% of giraffe immobilizations to manage hoof overgrowth and associated lameness
– Anesthesia of giraffes is difficult, owing to their unique anatomy and physiology - Ex: long neck, narrow trachea, large tidal volume, large anatomical dead space
– Many complications are related to induction, recovery, or self-induced trauma
- Research into mandibular fractures in giraffes in human care was prompted by injuries incurred by two individuals at the Budapest Zoo and Botanical Garden over the past 10 years

Key Points:
- 47/86 (~55%) used hay racks to feed animals at the time of the survey
– In 9/12 jaw fracture cases, metal hay racks were used as feeders at the time of accident
– Age varied, but majority were young. Average 3.4 yr (range 5 wk to 8 yr)
– Muzzles of young animals fit more easily between the bars of hay racks
– Avoid hay racks with distance between their grids too large (under 6 cm)
– The use of other type of feeders was not associated with reported injuries
- Two giraffes experienced complications during recovery following anesthesia for fracture repair
- For surgical procedures involving the mandible, an inferior alveolar nerve block can be used
- Surgical management appeared to have a good long-term prognosis

TLDR: Avoid using hay racks to feed young giraffes

Question 58

A recent study developed an image-based body condition score for giraffes.

What is the scientific name of the giraffe?

What are the 5 standardized photos to take?

Which area is the most precise to determine BCS?

Which area is the least useful?

Answer 58

JZAR 9.3 (2021).
Development of an image-based body condition score for giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) and a comparison of zoo-housed and free-ranging individuals.
Clavadetscher, I., et al. 

Key Points:
* 5 standardized photos = 1 straight from the front, 1 at 90 degree angle from the side, 1 straight from the back and 2 additional photographs at 45 degree angles from the front and back
* Head must be held up in line with the body (perpendicular or downward pointing neck changes the impression of the shoulder region) 
* Developed and validated BCS in giraffes (using free-ranging and zoo-housed giraffes)
* Shoulder area = 4 levels (less precise) - only scored in lateral views
– Also reflects SC adipose tissue, muscle tissue and skin thickness 
– Esp. in males due to adaptation to typical mode of intraspecific combat 
* Hip area = 7 levels 
– Juveniles had highest BCS hip (decreases with age)
– Adult wild males had higher BCS hip than wild females
– Zoo-housed animals had higher scores than free-ranging populations
* Rib area not useful