Caprinae

Question 1

Describe the etiology and epidemiology of capripoxviruses in nondomestic hoofstock.

What are the three viruses in the capripoxvirus genus?

What species are suceptible?

Where do these diseases occur in the wild?

How are these diseases transmitted?

Answer 1

Introduction/ etiology

• Genus Capripoxviruses (CaPVs) contains 3 species: sheeppox virus (SPPV), goatpox virus (GTPV), and lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV).

o Can not distinguish between species antigenically

• Domestic ruminant CaPV infections cause significant economic impact in endemic areas
• OIE notifiable diseases

Epidemiology

• SPPV and GTPV can cause very high morbidity (70-90%) and mortality rates (50-100%) in domestic animals
• LSDV morbidity typically 5-45% but can reach 100%, mortality typically <10%
• Severity of disease depends on species, age, and immune status
• Morbidity/ mortality in wild species poorly recorded
• Severe outbreak with high mortality in captive wild animals in Qatar in 2015
• Mortality rates as high as 100% in 16 ruminant species

Range and host-specificity

• CaPVs typically highly host specific but exceptions occur

o Some SPPV and GTPV strains can cause disease in both sheep and goats, and in some cases wild ruminants

• SPPV and GTPV ranges from Northern Africa, Middle East, India, and Asia
• LSDV occurs in majority of Africa into the Middle East
  
  • Typically causes disease in domestic cattle but natural and experimental infections in severe wild species reported
  • Role in wildlife not well understood

Transmission

• SPPV and GTPV highly contagious; may remain viable in crusts/ environment for several months

o Shed via secretions from ulcerated papules on mucous membranes -> transmission typically via aerosols and close contact

o Amount of viral shedding correlates with clinical disease severity -> no chronically infected carriers

• LSDV transmitted mechanically via biting insects -> virus can spread over long diseases

Question 2

Describe the management of capripoxviruses in nondomestic species.

What are the clinical signs and lesions associated with these diseases?

How are they diagnosed?

How are they treated, prevented, and controlled?

Answer 2

Chapter 91: Capripoxviruses in nondomestic hoofstock

Clinical signs/ pathology

• Following infection, typically 8-14 day incubation period then fever with concurrent skin nodules, lymphadenopathy, lethargy, anorexia, ulcerative lesions on mucous membranes (eyes, nose, mouth, pharynx, tongue), GI signs when GI mucosa affected (most often rumen/ abomasum), lungs often develop extensive nodules
• Secondary infection and death can occur

Diagnosis

• Severe infections typically pathognomonic, mild disease more difficult to diagnose
• Can not rely on serology to differentiate, PCR with secondary sequencing most reliable
• CaPV immunity mainly cell mediated -> neutralizing antibody levels typically low

Treatment, prevention, and control

• Treatment relies on supportive care and abx therapy for secondary infections
• Isolation of sick/ exposed animals, strict quarantine, disinfectant protocols, appropriate carcass disposal, and vector control essential to prevent spread
• Vaccination via modified live vaccines in enzootic countries -> not authorized for use in nonendemic countries
• Killed vaccines available for emergency use in non-endemic countries, less effective

Question 3

Bighorn sheep are commonly reported with what neoplasm?

What is the suspected etiology?

What are the lesions like?

Answer 3

• Free-ranging bighorn sheep
• Experimentally transmitted between bighorn and domestic sheep
• Soft, shite, gelatinous cystic masses that fill the nasal sinuses and extend into underlying bone, frontal or palatine, sinus, or nasal turbinates
• Nasal cavities may be filles with seromucinous exudate with Pasteurellacea or Mycoplasma ovipnumoniae
• Masses have deep submucosal sheets intraluminal PAS positive mucin
• Periosteal cell origin is suspected
• Tumor transmission studies suggests a viral etiology
• Separate from the enzootic nasal adenocarcinoma in domestic sheep

Question 4

What is the etiologic agent of orf?

What species are susceptible?

Describe the pathogenesis and epidemiology of this disease.

What are the typical clinical signs?

What are the associated histological lesions? What are the inclusion bodies?

Answer 4

• Susceptible Species:
  
  • Caprids – bighorn sheep, Dall’s sheep, mountain goats, muskoxen, takin, chamois, tahr, serow
  • Also reported in blackbuck, mountain gazelle, and steenbok – experimental infection in pronghorn
• Etiology: Parapoxvirus (Poxviridae) – Orf Virus (ORFV)
  
  • Genetic testing may be needed to differentiate from Capripoxvirus lesions in some cases
• Pathogenesis & Epidemiology :
  
  • Infection through defects in skin or mucous membranes
  • Virus shed in sloughed skin crusts but virus can remain infective in environment for long periods of time
  • Outbreaks occur in higher population densities
  • Young animals re most severely affected and lesions can be fatal
• Clinical signs
  
  • Proliferative, necrotizing, and vesicular lesions on the skin and mucous membranes
  • Muzzle lips, gingiva are most commonly involved – tongue, periocular region, distal limbs, interdigital cleft, heel bulb, mammary gland, vulva, prepuce and dorsal skin are other sites
  • Lesions progress from papules to pustules that rupture resulting in thick crusts
  • Secondary emaciation or infections leading to cellulitis, stomatitis, aspiration pneumonia, or mastitis can occur
• Histo Lesions: Intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusion , epidermal proliferation & swelling of stratum spinosum with intraepidermal vesicles & pustules

Question 5

What is the etiologic agent of border disease?

What species are susceptible?

Describe the clinical signs and lesions.

What are the typical histo lesions?

How is this disease diagnosed?

Answer 5

• Susceptible Species:
  
  • Mass mortalities in wild chamois
• Etiology: Pestivirus - Flaviviridae
• Pathogenesis:
  
  • Persistent infections and vertical transmission
• Clinical Signs & Gross lesions
  
  • Depression, decreased flight distance, sudden death
  • Patchy to wide-spread alopecia, epidermal hyperpigmentation with secondary infections
• Histo Lesions:
  
  • Spongiosis, perivascular edema, neuronal degeneration and necrosis, mononuclear perivascular cuffing in the brain. Follicular atrophy, tricholelemmal keratin deposition in the skin with acanthosis, melanosis, and orthokeratotic hyperkeratiosis
• Diagnosis:
  
  • Viral antigen may be in spleen and lymph node macrophages, epithelium, kidney, rumen, or brain
  • PCR, VI, ELIsA

Question 6

What is the etiologic agent of epizootic pneumonia in bighorn sheep?

What other organisms contribute to disease?

How is this transmitted?

What are the clinical signs and lesions?

How is it diagnosed?

Answer 6

• Susceptible Species:
  
  • Bighorn sheep
• Etiology: Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae
  
  • Other organisms thought to be the cause – lungworm (Protostrongylus), Pasterurellacea (Bibersteinia, Mannnhemia, P. multocida)
• Pathogenesis & Epidemiology:
  
  • Contact with domestic sheep
  • In naïve population – mortality can be up to 90%
• Clinical Signs & Gross Lesions
  
  • Penumonia-related mortality
  • Acute to chronic fibrinous, suppurative or necrotizing sinusitis and bronchopneumonia with pleuritis
  • Abscesses, bronchiectasis, and pleural adhesions
• Histo Lesions: neutrophilic exudate in lumina of small airways
• Diagnosis: PCR

Question 7

What is the etiologic agent of infectious keratoconjunctivitis in caprids?

What species are susceptible?

How is this disease transmitted?

What are the typical clinical signs and lesions?

Answer 7

• Susceptible Species:
  
  • Chamois, ibex, bighorn sheep
• Etiology: Mycoplasma conjunctivae
• Pathogenesis:
  
  • Transmission by contact with ocular secretions or exudate or indirectly by insects; aerosols also transmitted
• Clinical signs:
  
  • Corneal edema, erosion, ulceration, stromal necrosis with anterior synechiae or staphyloma, corneal fibrosis may occur in longterm cases
  • Death typically from blindness – trauma, predation, emaciation
• Diagnosis: PCR

Question 8

What species are susceptible to scrapie?

What are the class histologic lesions?

How is it diagnosed?

Answer 8

• Susceptible Species:
  
  • Domestic sheep and goats – also in mouflon and other caprinids
• Histo Lesions: neuronal vacuolation of the obex
• Diagnosis: IHC, obex histo, ELISA – no reliable tests in a living animal

Question 9

What are the three groups of carpinids?

Answer 9

Biology

• Family Bovidae, subfamily Caprinae
  
  • Three tribes
    
    • Ovibini – muskox & takin
    • Rupricaprini – goral, serow, chamois
    • Caprini – sheep, goat, tahr
• 85 species
• Marked sexual dimorphism in size and shape of horns in Caprini, less pronounced in other tribes

Question 10

What are important considerations in enclosure design for caprinids?

Answer 10

Special Housing Requirements

• Agile climbers & jumpers
• Climbing structures to promote natural behaviors & hoof wear, but care should be taken to prevent escape

Question 11

Describe the nutritional strategies of caprinids.

What are some potential concerns for toxicity?

Question 12

Describe the restraint of caprinids - both physically and chemically.

Answer 12

Restraint & Handling

• Prolonged running may induce hyperthermia & capture myopathy
• Smaller species may be restrained for short procedures
  
  • Horns of juveniles should not be used for restraint, as the bony core may not be fused to the skull yet
• Chemical Restraint
  
  • Opioids – ultrapotents used, butorphanol + alpha 2 seems to decrease rumen reflux
  • Intubation recommended to prevent aspiration of rumen contents
  • Use of stylets facilitates intubation in species with narrow muzzles

Question 13

What are some of the common complications to anesthetizing caprinids?

Answer 13

Species Specific Physiology

· Very prone to severe hypoxemia with alpha-2 agonists – sometimes supplemental oxygen isn’t sufficient to correct this

· Prone to ruminal tympany and regurgitation during chemical restraint

Question 14

Describe the physical capture techniques for wild caprinids.

Which has the lowest mortliaty rate?

Answer 14

Physical Capture

• Net gunning had lowest combined mortality rate (<2%), drop netting (3%), drive netting (4%), chemical immobilization (8%) had the highest mortality rate in wild animals – physical restraint is the preferred method for short procedures
• Some acepromazine with physical restraint has reduced stress of the handling

Question 15

Describe the chemical restraint of caprinids?

What sites are used for vascular access?

Describe intubation techniques.

How long should these animals be fasted for?

Any tips for positioning?

Any species specific considerations?

Answer 15

Chemical Restraint
- Vascular Access – cephalic, jugular, saphenous
- Intubation – sternal recumbency with head extended toward sky, long laryngoscope, stylets assist in narrow mouthed species
– Administration of diazepam with ketamine, or propofol, prior to intubation is useful in providing the needed muscle relaxation for intubation
- Fasting - >24 hours to reduce tympany & regurgitation
- Monitoring – hypoxemia common with alpha-2s, hyperthermia with long catches (>41C - >106F – coldwater enema or reverse)
- Positioning – sternal recumbency or modified right lateral recumbency to reduce regurgitation

Species Specific Considerations
- Bighorn sheep
– Etorphine 3.5 mg + 50 mg xylazine
– Telazol 4.2 mg/kg + xylazine 0.5 mg/kg
- Mountain Goat
– Etorphine – 4-5 mg/animal
- Markhor – medetomidine + ketamine had more respiratory depression than etorphine-acepromazine
- Chamois – ketamine + xylazine or medetomidine
- Ibex – medetomidine + ketamine
- Muskox – large head, small mouth make intubation difficult – diazepam or guaifenesin for relaxation is crucial for intubation

Question 16

What is teh cientific name of the chamois?

What are some important diseases in wild chamois?

Any diseases of zoonotic concern?

Describe their restraint.

Answer 16

Biology of Chamois

• Family: Bovidae Subfamily: Caprinae
• 2 species:
  
  • Rupicapra pyreneica in Pyrenees, northern Spain
  • Rupicapra rupicapra in Alps
• CITES I
• Trophy hunting trophy, meat valued, chamois leather from skin
• Females give birth May and June
• Adult males are often alone, rut is quite aggressive

Anatomy and Physiology

• Similar to domestic goats
• Horns in both sexes

Feeding and Housing

• Rarely found in zoos
• Very sensitive to high temps
• Very aggressive, esp males
• Males known to kill females during rut, Best to remove males from enclosure at this time

Reproduction

• Single kids

Restraint / Handling

• Physical restraint for newborns only
• Chemical restraint – catching them in the wild is difficult due to alps environment
  
  • Oral sedation
  • Acepromazine (short acting neurolept) not sufficient for physical restraint but good for pre-immobilization and transport
• Long acting neurolepts – Not reported
• Immobilization
  
  • Xylazine / ketamine, doses are extremely low compared to other mountain ungulates
  • Medetomidine / ketamine – superior choice

Diagnostics – same as goat

Diseases

• Endoparasites
  
  • Eimeria specific to chamois
  • Chamois kids can get clinical intestinal coccidiosis = massive ventral neck edema.
  • Various cestodes are regularly demonstrated, usually not a problem, but occasionally clinical in kids
  • Lungworms are extremely common, 85% Protostongylidae were detected
  • GI nematode is high, Trichostrongylidae are most often detected
• Infectious Disease
  
  • Chamois share pastures with domestic sheep and goats. Political conflict between hunters and shepherds
  • Respiratory Tract
  • Most important pathology in wild chamois
  • Epizootics and significant die offs occur
  • Manheimmia hemolytica is most frequent isolate
  • Assume multifactorial etiology to die offs in additional to Manheimmia
    
    • Some viral agents found: BVD, IBR, BRSV
    • Protostrongylus
• Infectious keratoconjunctivitis
  
  • Mycoplasma conjunctivae
  • Affects goats and sheep, Chamois frequently infected
  • Can be fatal in wild ungulates, where moderate dz in domestics
  • Unilateral or bilateral conj or corneal inflammation
  • Progresses to mucopurulent conjunctivitis and ulceration, cornea may perforate, animals are found blind
  • Diagnosis: PCR
  • Prevention: Prevent spill over from domestics
• Other
  
  • Pestivirus – non specific CNS symptoms, lack of flight response to humans, high prevalence with asymptomatics. Concern for economic losses in domestic animals.
  • Brucella meletensis, often described.
• Skin diseases – All three are ZOONOTIC
  
  • Scabies – Sarcoptes scabei
    
    • Endemic in some populations of chamois
    • Cyclic outbreaks in other populations
    • Head and neck, spreads over the back
    • ELISA to detect asymptomatic carriers
    • Easily treated
  • Dermatophilosis
    
    • Suppurative inflammatory skin disease
    • Dermatophilus congolensis
    • Diagnosed by demonstrating rows of coccoid bodies with a “railroad” track appearance on Geimsa
    • Stress and concurrent infection likely lead to disease
  • Contagious ecthyma
    
    • Parapoxvirus
    • Reported in wild and captive chamois
    • Predominantly on mouth and face, but could be genital and feet
    • Self limiting
    • Domestic sheep and goats are reservoirs
    • Vaccine available

Neoplasms – n of 1’s, not summarized

Question 17

Describe tuberculin testing in caprinids.

How does that differ from bovids?

What species may react nonspecifically?

Answer 17

Tuberculin testing – most commonly done intradermally on a shaved region of the lateral cervical region – Takins may show a nonspecific response to intradermal tuberculin testing

Question 18

A recent study evaluated anatomic landmarks for captive-bolt euthanasia of goats.

What are the approved methods of euthanasia for goats?

What were the landmarks established in this study?

Answer 18

Plummer, P. J., Shearer, J. K., Kleinhenz, K. E., & Shearer, L. C. (2018).
Determination of anatomic landmarks for optimal placement in captive-bolt euthanasia of goats.
American journal of veterinary research, 79(3), 276-281.

OBJECTIVE To determine the optimal anatomic site and directional aim of a penetrating captive bolt (PCB) for euthanasia of goats.
SAMPLE 8 skulls from horned and polled goat cadavers and 10 anesthetized horned and polled goats scheduled to be euthanized at the end of a teaching laboratory.
PROCEDURES Sagittal sections of cadaver skulls from 8 horned and polled goats were used to determine the ideal anatomic site and aiming of a PCB to maximize damage to the midbrain region of the brainstem for euthanasia. Anatomic sites for ideal placement and directional aiming were confirmed by use of 10 anesthetized horned and polled goats.
RESULTS Clinical observation and postmortem examination of the sagittal sections of skulls from the 10 anesthetized goats that were euthanized confirmed that perpendicular placement and firing of a PCB at the intersection of 2 lines, each drawn from the lateral canthus of 1 eye to the middle of the base of the opposite ear, resulted in consistent disruption of the midbrain and thalamus in all goats. Immediate cessation of breathing, followed by a loss of heartbeat in all 10 of the anesthetized goats, confirmed that use of this site consistently resulted in effective euthanasia.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Damage to the brainstem and key adjacent structures may be accomplished by firing a PCB perpendicular to the skull over the anatomic site identified at the intersection of 2 lines, each drawn from the lateral canthus of 1 eye to the middle of the base of the opposite ear.

• Acceptable methods for euthanasia of goats:
  – Barbiturate overdose, electrocution, gunshot, captive bolt.
  – To cause immediate loss of consciousness and brain injury leading to death, PCB must damage the cerebral hemispheres and vital structures in the brainstem i.e. midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata.

Question 19

A recent studying investigated the MAC and cardiovascular effects of desflurane in sheep.

What was the MAC in this study?

What are some pros and cons of desflurane over other inhalant anesthetics?

What was a common physiologic effect of the drug?

Answer 19

Columbano, N., Duffee, L. R., Melosu, V., Scanu, A., Dore, S., Sotgiu, G., … & Careddu, G. M. (2018).
Determination of minimum alveolar concentration and cardiovascular effects of desflurane in positive-pressure ventilated sheep.
American journal of veterinary research, 79(7), 727-732.

Key Points:
- Desflurane:
– Boiling point close to room temp, requires special heated vaporizer for safe use.
– More expensive than other inhalants.
– Lowest rate of biodegradation among volatile anesthetics.
– May result in higher amounts of CO when in contact with dry CO2 absorbents.
– Favorable under low-flow conditions resulting in less desiccation of CO2 absorbents.
– Rapid induction and emergence from anesthesia, precise depth control.
- MAC: Concentration preventing movement in response to defined noxious stimulus in 50% of subjects, determines potency of an inhalation anesthetic.
- Desflurane caused dose-dependent arterial hypotension, which indicated the need for careful blood pressure monitoring

OBJECTIVE To determine the minimum alveolar concentration of desflurane (MACDES) and effects on cardiovascular variables in positive-pressure ventilated sheep.
ANIMALS 13 adult female sheep.
PROCEDURES Anesthesia was induced with desflurane. After a 30-minute equilibration at an end-tidal concentration of desflurane (etDES) of 10.5%, an electrical stimulus (5 Hz/ms and 50 mA) was applied for 1 minute or until gross purposeful movement occurred. The etDES was then changed by 0.5% (modified up-down method), depending on whether a positive motor response had been elicited, and stimulation was repeated. The MACDES was the etDES midway between a positive and negative response. After MACDES was determined, etDES was increased to 1.3 and 1.6 MACDES. Animals were allowed to equilibrate for 15 minutes, and cardiovascular, blood gas, acid-base, and hematologic variables were measured. Times to induction of anesthesia, extubation, attainment of sternal position, and standing and duration of anesthesia were recorded.
RESULTS Mean ± SD MACDES was 9.81 ± 0.79%. Times to intubation, extubation, and standing were 4.81 ± 2.21 minutes, 14.09 ± 4.05 minutes, and 32.4 ± 12.5 minutes, respectively. Duration of anesthesia was 226 ± 22 minutes. Heart rate increased significantly at induction of anesthesia but otherwise remained at preanesthetic rates. Arterial blood pressures progressively decreased with increasing etDES; pressures increased slightly only in response to noxious stimulation.
CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The MACDES determined here compared favorably with that determined for other sheep populations and indicated similar anesthetic potency as in other species. Desflurane caused dose-dependent arterial hypotension, which indicated the need for careful blood pressure monitoring.

Question 20

A recent paper investigated the use of vatinoxan in markhor anesthetized with medetomidine and ketamine.

What is the scientific name of the Markhor?

What is vatinoxin?

What were some physiologic effects of this protocol?

How did vatinoxin affect those?

Answer 20

Sainmaa, S., Mykkänen, A., Adam, M., Jantunen, N., Vainio, O., & Raekallio, M. (2019).
INTRAVENOUS VATINOXAN IN MARKHORS (CAPRA FALCONERI HEPTNERi) IMMOBILIZED WITH INTRAMUSCULAR MEDETOMIDINE AND KETAMINE—A PRELIMINARY DOSESCREENING STUDY.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 50(1), 159-166.

• Vatinoxan is an alpha-2 adrenergic antagonist with poor blood-brain barrier penetration that has been shown to attenuate CV effects of apha-2 agonists in dogs, cats, horses, and sheep without substantial effects on sedation
• All animals immobilized with med/ ket developed bradycardia and hypertension
• Hypertension was alleviated by vatinoxan in dose dependent manner; no hypotension detected at any point
• Reversal with atipamezole not affected by vatinoxan

Bottom line: vatinoxan appeared to improve cardiovascular function in markor immobilized with med/ ket

Question 21

A recent study compared IV induction of anesthetesia in goats using ketamine or alfaxalone.

How easily was intubation achieved in the two groups?

Which drug caused issues with blood pressure?

Answer 21

Comparison of intravenous anesthetic induction doses and physiologic effects of ketamine or alfaxalone in goats undergoing surgery with isoflurane anesthesia
AJVR 2019 80(9) 819-824

Results/discussion:
- All able to be intubated but 5/9 ketamine group required an additional dose of drug
- All in alfax group intubated without additional drug
- greater muscle tone and reflexive activity in ketamine group than in those in alfaxalone group when placing mouth gag and laryngoscope
- alfax - blinking, twitching, and changes in eye position
- ketamine - maintenance of jaw tone, gagging, and swallowing
- ketamine group were at a lighter plane of anesthesia
- direct arterial blood pressure values higher following induction with ketamine
- significant arterial blood pressure decreases from preinduction values in alfaxalone group still resulted in clinically acceptable values, resp depression likely more significant

Takeaway:
- alfaxalone could reasonably be considered as alternative anesthetic induction agent in healthy goats, however, potential for a decrease in arterial blood pressures and clinically relevant decrease in RR immediately after IV administration should be considered
- alfaxalone is currently not licensed for use in caprine species in USA

Question 22

A recent study compared medetomidine-ketamine versue medetomidine-azaperone-alfaxalone in bighorn sheep.

What is the scientific name of the bighorn sheep?

How did induction and recovery differ between the two protocols (MK v MAA)?

How were physgiologic paramters altered between the two protocols (MK v MAA)?

Answer 22

Williams, M., Caulkett, N., Neuhaus, P., Ruckstuhl, K., Boysen, S., & Fahlman, Å. (2018).
Comparison of the efficacy and safety of medetomidine-ketamine versus medetomidine-azaperone-alfaxalone combination in free-ranging rocky mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 49(3), 662-670.

Key Points:
- Induction and recovery times were not significantly different
- Both groups experienced experienced severe hypoxemia
- PaCO2 was significantly higher in the MK group
- MK group initially had higher heartrates than MAA group, which decreased over time
- Also, the alfaxolone dose was quite low (~0.45 mg/kg)

Takeaway: In bighorn sheep, both MK and MAA produced reliable, reversible immobilization with smooth inductions and recoveries. However, less respiratory depression was seen with MAA than MK. With either protocol, use supplemental O2

Question 23

A recent study investigated the use of two ELISAs to measure pregnancy-associated glycoproteins in the blood of muskoxen.

What is the scientific name of the Muskox?

What are pregnancy-associated glycoproteins?

How did the two ELISAs differ? Which worked better?

How are specificity, sensitivity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value calculated?

Answer 23

Greunz, E. M., Stelvig, M., Grøndahl, C., Schmidt, N. M., Mosbacher, J. B., Hansen, L. H., & Bertelsen, M. F. (2018).
Evaluation of two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays measuring pregnancy-associated glycoproteins in the blood of muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus).
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 49(3), 798-801.

Pregnancy-associated glycoproteins – expressed by ruminant placenta
- Enter the maternal circulation at the time of placental attachment
- Assays can be performed to detect in blood and determine pregnancy

Results
- Photometric ELISA PAG test- sensitivity 94 %; specificity 100 %; positive predictive value 100 %; and negative predictive value 94 %
- Visual ELISA - similar results - Sensitivity 81 % ; specificity 100 % ; positive predictive value 100 % ; and negative predictive value 84 %
- Both ELISAs proved to reliably detect pregnancy in muskoxen
- Photometric ELISA was more consistent and precise - detected PAGs in serum and plasma with a higher sensitivity than the visual ELISA
- PAGs were still detected in the blood after birth

Question 24

A recent study evaluated prognostic indicators for goats with pregnancy toxemia.

What were the major biochemical prognostic indicators?

Were twins or quadruplets more likely to survive?

Did delivery method matter?

Answer 24

Simpson, K. M., Taylor, J. D., & Streeter, R. N. (2019).
Evaluation of prognostic indicators for goats with pregnancy toxemia.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 254(7), 859-867.

Does with high BUN concentration and those with serum bicarbonate concentration < 15 mEq/L were more likely to die than does without these findings.

Among offspring of dams that survived to their delivery, twins had a higher survival rate than quadruplets.

Death was more likely for offspring delivered by cesarean section than for those delivered vaginally

Question 25

A recent case report describe dermatitis and rhinosinusitis with curvularia in a chinese goral.

What is the scientific name of the chinese goral?

What type of fungus is Curvularia sp?
- Where does it typically live?
- What body systems does it typically invade?

How did this case present?
- What findings were observed on CT?
- What treatments were attempted

Answer 25

DERMATITIS AND RHINOSINUITIS CAUSED BY CURVULARIA SPECIES IN A CHINESE GORAL (NAEMORHEDUS GRISEUS)
JZWM 2020

Curvularia spp. = saprophytic fungi; family Pleosporaceae
- Dematiaceous (darkly pigmented fungi)
- Occur in the soil, distributed worldwide but thrive in tropical and subtropical environments
- Exposure occurs via inhalation of spores, penetrating trauma, wound contamination
- Immunosuppression can be a factor in opportunistic infections
- Phaeohyphomycosis = clinical condition caused by dematiaceous fungi
- Localized cutaneous/ocular, Respiratory, CNS, disseminated infections
- Emerging pathogen in humans
- Possible treatments- griseofulvin (used to treat dermatophytic fungal infections), itraconazole and voriconazole have shown effectiveness in treatment in vitro

Case report
- Mortality in gorals in general- infectious disease, trauma, neonatal issues, complications with restraint, noninfectious disease (median life span- 12-13 years)
- 5 year old male goral born in captivity
- Presented with variably sized, red, plaque like lesions on both ears
- Pyogranulomatous dermatitis with non-pigmented, thin-walled yeast organisms
- Fungal culture and PCR identified Curvularia
- Aural lesions progressed, also developed epistaxis/nasal discharge, labored breathing
- Unresponsive to empirical abx
- CT- nondestructive bilateral rhinosinusitis; rhinoscopy- severe, multifocal ulceration with plaque-like lesions in the nasal mucosa; biopsies- positive for Curvularia
- Treated with griseofulvin (oral) but no improvement, anesthetized and treated with intranasal instillations of clotrimazole but minimal response- died under anesthesia before euthanasia
- Possible pathogenesis- inhaled during grazing or associated with a tooth root abscess; may have been an occult infection until hematogenous spread to the pinnae

Question 26

A recent study described ectopic ureters and hypoplastic kidneys in Iberian ibex.

What is the scientific name of the Iberian ibex?

What were the clinical signs of these animals?

What findings were observed on diagnostics?

What was the outcome in these cases?

What is the pathogenesis of this congenital condition?

Answer 26

Lucero et al
UNILATERAL SINGLE VAGINAL ECTOPIC URETER WITH IPSILATERAL HYPOPLASTIC AND DEGENERATED KIDNEY ASSOCIATED WITH INFERTILITY IN IBERIAN IBEX (CAPRA PYRENAICA) DOES
JZWM 2020

Clinical Signs
* All showed constant urinal dribbling, leading to ulcerative dermatitis in the vulvar area

Diagnostics
- Scope abnormalities
- Vaginoscopy → tubular structure crossing vaginal cavity in PP1
- Laparoscopy → cystic structure on wall of urinary bladder in PP2 and the same tubular hyperplastic structure
- US - Ultrasound examination revealed atrophy of the left kidney in the adult female and PP1, and of the right kidney in PP2, with degeneration of the renal pelvis

Outcome
- Adult female euthanized due to infertility, PM results in abstract (see image below)
- Embryological origin of ureter insertion into genitourinary tract → abnormal differentiation of metanephric and mesonephric ducts
– Secondary to incorrect development of Wolffian duct in first weeks of gestation
– Syndromes rare in humans and dogs, better described in them (more info in article)
○ Paraovarian-finbrial cysts first report in Ibex, reported to cause subfertility/infertility in ewes and goats

Question 27

A recent study reported the indications and outcome for limb amputation in goats and sheep.

What were the main reasons for amputation?

What complications occured?
- How common were complications?
- How does that compare to larger hoofstock like horses & cattle?

Answer 27

Gamsjaeger, L., & Chigerwe, M. (2018).
Indications for and outcomes of limb amputation in goats and sheep.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 252(7), 860-863.

Findings:
- Reasons for limb amputation included trauma (ie, fracture, dog bite, and wire-fence injury) and infectious or degenerative disease (ie, osteomyelitis and osteoarthritis).
- Most (7/9 - of the total of 22 cases) of the postsurgical complications were noticed > 2 months after amputation and included uncoordinated gait, tendon breakdown and laxity of the contralateral limb, chronic lameness, surgical site infection, chronic intermittent pain, and angular limb deformity

Large animal amputations
- Horses – 4/13 euthanized within 21 days, 9 survived from 18-111 months, decreased reproduction
- Cattle – valgus deviation of the contralateral limb
– Uncoordinated gait, tendon breakdown of contralateral limb

Take Home: Amputation in goats (or other small ruminants) should be considered when whole limb preservation is not possible

Question 28

A recent study evaluated the neoplasia of the tubular genital tract in goats.

How did these animals typically present?

What were the most common tumor types?
- Which one was most likely to metastasize?

What finding was associated wtih a higher likelihood of euthanasia?

Answer 28

Neoplasia of the tubular genital tract in 42 goats
JAVMA 2020 256(7) 808-813

Key Points:
* Pygmy goats were overrepresented (22/42 [52%]).
* Common reasons for evaluation were bloody vaginal discharge or hematuria and abdominal straining.
* Adenocarcinoma (13/42 [31%]), leiomyoma (13 [31%]), and leiomyosarcoma (11 [26%]) were the most common tumors.
* Does with distant metastasis had greater odds of a diagnosis of adenocarcinoma (OR, 40.5) than does without distant metastasis
* Does with hemorrhagic discharge had almost 7 times the odds of euthanasia for does without this finding.
* The survival-to-discharge rate was low (13/42 [31%]).

Question 29

A recent study evalauted the pharmacokinetics of florfenicol in sheep.

What are the organisms this drug is typically used to target?

What doses and routes were used in this study?

What was teh elimination half life like?

Answer 29

Balcomb, C. C., Angelos, J. A., Chigerwe, M., Byrne, B. A., Lane, V. M., Wetzlich, S. E., … & Tell, L. A. (2018).
Comparative pharmacokinetics of two florfenicol formulations following intramuscular and subcutaneous administration to sheep.
American journal of veterinary research, 79(1), 107-114.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the pharmacokinetics of 2 commercial florfenicol formulations following IM and SC administration to sheep.

ANIMALS: 16 healthy adult mixed-breed sheep.

PROCEDURES: In a crossover study, sheep were randomly assigned to receive florfenicol formulation A or B at a single dose of 20 mg/kg, IM, or 40 mg/kg, SC. After a 2-week washout period, each sheep was administered the opposite formulation at the same dose and administration route as the initial formulation. Blood samples were collected immediately before and at predetermined times for 24 hours after each florfenicol administration. Plasma florfenicol concentrations were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated by noncompartmental methods and compared between the 2 formulations at each dose and route of administration.

RESULTS: Median maximum plasma concentration, elimination half-life, and area under the concentration-time curve from time 0 to the last quantifiable measurement for florfenicol were 3.76 μg/mL, 13.44 hours, and 24.88 μgh/ mL, respectively, for formulation A and 7.72 μg/mL, 5.98 hours, and 41.53 μgh/mL, respectively, for formulation B following administration of 20 mg of florfenicol/kg, IM, and 2.63 μg/mL, 12.48 hours, and 31.63 μgh/mL, respectively, for formulation A and 4.70 μg/mL, 16.60 hours, and 48.32 μgh/ mL, respectively, for formulation B following administration of 40 mg of florfenicol/kg, SC.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that both formulations achieved plasma florfenicol concentrations expected to be therapeutic for respiratory tract disease caused by Mannheimia haemolytica or Pasteurella spp at both doses and administration routes evaluated.

Question 30

A recent study investigated the pharmacokinetics of pentoxifylline and its main metabolite after IV administration in sheep.

What is pentoxifyline?
- What is it used for?

What were the major findings of this PK study?

Answer 30

Orhan Corum, Duygu Durna Corum, Orkun Atik, Ayse Er, Kamil Uney.
Pharmacokinetics of pentoxifylline and its 5-hydroxyhexyl metabolite after intravenous administration of increasing doses to sheep.
AJVR 2019 80:702–708

Pentoxifyline (PTX) is a methylxanthine derivative that ↓platelet adhesion to blood vessel walls, ↓blood viscosity, and promotes fibroginolysis, ↑filterability of monocytes and polymorphonuclear leukocytes, ↑ intracellular cAMP concentration which prevents platelet aggregation and cyclooxygenase activity

Take home: sheep can be safely administered PTX at doses of 10 and 20 mg/kg and reaches human therapeutic levels

Question 31

A recent study investigated wild bighorn sheep for any evidence of transmissible spongiform encephalpathies.

What were the two TSE’s of concern?

What were their findings?

Answer 31

OPPORTUNISTIC SURVEILLANCE OF CAPTIVE AND FREE-RANGING BIGHORN SHEEP (OVIS CANADENSIS) IN COLORADO, USA, FOR TRANSMISSIBLE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHIES
Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 57(2), 2021, pp. 338–344

ABSTRACT: Bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) are predicted to have a degree of susceptibility to the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) chronic wasting disease and scrapie. We opportunistically screened 127 captive bighorn sheep and 152 free-ranging bighorn sheep in Colorado, US for the presence of TSE over a period of 35 yr. None of the animals demonstrated clinical signs, gross pathology, histopathology, or immunohistochemical staining patterns suggestive of TSE.

Question 32

A recent study investigated medetomidine-ketamine-morphine versus dexmedetomidine-ketamine-morphine immobilization in mouflon.

What is the scientific name of the mouflon?

Were there any differences between the two protocols?

What physiologic effects were observed?

How long was sedation sufficient with these protocols?

Answer 32

Varela-Lopez, O., Gomez-Martinez, M. I., Rodriguez, A. A., & González-Cantalapiedra, A. (2021).
IMMOBILIZATION OF MOUFLON (OVIS ORIENTALIS MUSIMON) USING MEDETOMIDINE–KETAMINE–MORPHINE OR DEXMEDETOMIDINE–KETAMINE–MORPHINE.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 52(3), 1018-1023.

No statistically significant differences were detected between protocols at any time point and no significant differences were detected in any measured variables at any time point between protocols.

However, a significant decrease in the noninvasive blood pressure variables (SAP, MAP, and DAP) and in the RR were detected over time.

Both chemical immobilization protocols provided at least 50 min of immobilization in mouflon, allowing minor procedures and tracheal intubation.

Question 33

A recent study investigated trazodone as a potential sedative in domestic goats.

What is the mechanism of trazodone?

What dose was used in this study?

How did this dose affect their behavior?

Answer 33

PHARMACOKINETICS AND CLINICAL EFFECTS OF A SINGLE ORAL DOSE OF TRAZODONE IN THE DOMESTIC GOAT (CAPRA HIRCUS) AS A MODEL FOR WILD RUMINANTS
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 51(4): 896–904, 2020

Trazodone - a seratonin reuptake inhibitor

• 10 mg/kg was found to be the optimal clinical dose
• This dose resulted in a 502% increase in time spent sleeping and a 623% increase in time spent lying down.
• Additionally, there were reductions of 72% in time spent grooming , 49% in time spent moving, and 87% in time spent observing
• No adverse effects noted, no difference in time spent ingesting food or ruminating
• No arrhythmias recorded by holter monitor
• PK showed that all animals reached adequate plasma concentrations (based on dogs and horses) with a single dose

Takeaway: Trazodone appears safe and effective in goats at 10 mg/kg PO

Question 34

A recent study described laparoscopic ovariohysterectomy in goats.

What are some advantages and disadvantages of the lap spays?

What is the most common neoplasia of the goat reproductive tract?

What was the most common complication with this procedure?

Answer 34

Laparoscopic ovariohysterectomy in goats.
Daniel, A.J., Easley, J.T., Holt, T.N., Griffenhagen, G.M. and Hackett, E.S.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 2019;254(2):275-281.

Background
- Lap procedures advantages: less operative trauma and post-op pain, rapid recovery, excellent visibility of structures in caudal abdomen
- Disadvantages: require specialized equipment and training, greater cost, risk of inadvertent penetration of rumen with lap cannula insertion

Caprine repro disease
- Adenocarcinoma (cervix, uterus, or vagina) most commonly identified neoplasia of repro tract, cervical adenomatous hyperplasia, leiomyofibromatosis
- CS of neoplasia: anorexia, vaginal discharge, straining, inappropriate lactation

Most common complication was regurgitation due to additional abdominal insufflation

Question 35

A recent review described the pathogenesis of scrapie.

What is the function of PrP?

How does the susceptibility of sheep to scrapie change with age?

How is scrapie transmitted?

What is the pathogenesis?

How is it diagnosed?
- What are the best samples to take postmortem and antemortem?

What interspecies transmission has been documented?

Answer 35

Pathogenesis, detection, and control of scrapie in sheep
Eric D. Cassmann dvm, phd Justin J. Greenlee dvm, phd

PrPc is a glycoprotein found in the plasma membrane, it included cupric (Cu2+) ion bidning sites
- Highest concentrations of mRNA are found in thalamus and cerebrum, followed by cerebellum, spinal cord, spleen & lymphoid tissue, brainstem, GIT, and reproductive organs
- PrP deficient mice have abnormal special cognitive abilities
- Has role in synaptic function, uterine decidualization, sleep regualation, host-pathogen interactions, T cell-dendritic cell synapses, negative regulation of phagocytosis

Age of exposure affects susceptibility
- 12 hours old – incubation shorter and attack rate greater than 4 month olds that got 4x the dose
- <24 months old at exposure 3x as likely to develop scrapie as >24 months old

Transmission
- Vertical transmission – prenatally, periparturient transmission – lambs coming into contact with contaminated fluids or placenta, lambs getting it in colostrum
- Horizontal – consumption of prion from contaminated environment.

Pathogenesis – GALT invasion, lymphatic invasion & dissemination, neuroinvasion
- Atypical scrapie occurs in older animals who spontaneous develop the disease without exposure

Diagnosis
- Post-mortem – IHC at the obex; antemortem – Ihc of tonsils (best), third eyelid, or rectal mucosa (decent)

Interspecies transmission
- cattle resistant orally but susceptible intracereberally
- WTD susceptible with oronasal and intercerebral inoculation
- elk susceptible with intracranial inoculation
- raccoons susceptible intracerebrally
- pig resistant
- zoonotic risk seems less than BSE based on protein differences

Eradication – selective breeding of ARR genotypes which are resistant and avoiding VRQ genotypes which are susceptible.

Question 36

A recent study described the clinical management of severe burns in goats, sheep, and swine.

What treatments were attempted in these individuals?

What was a common complication?

What were common reasons for euthanasia?

Which species had the best prognosis?

Answer 36

Clinical management and outcomes for goats, sheep, and pigs hospitalized for treatment of burn injuries sustained in wildfires: 28 cases (2006, 2015, and 2018)
JAVMA 2020 257(11) 1165-1170

9 goats, 12 sheep, 7 pigs treated for burns
- complications from wildfire burn wounds were relatively high in sheep and pigs compared with goats
- most common reason for euthanasia  severe damage to the distal aspects of limbs
- high mortality rate in sheep maybe related to higher frequency of third-degree burns
- burning wool may also have exacerbated intensity and transfer of heat to skin
- out in field so delay in catch and transport
- severe burn injuries to ventrum of pigs could have resulted from low body carriage
- greater body fat in pigs might also increase their risk for severe illness and death
- hypermetabolic state after burns
- recommend nutritional support during healing

Treatments - SSD (good against microbes, needs to be applied twice daily), antibiotics, thiamine, famotidine, vitamin E/slenium

Outcomes
- laminitis common complication in this study
– common reason for euthanasia of sheep
- burns causing devitalization of entire distal limb extremities including phalangeal bones common reason for euthanasia of swine
- prognosis for burns may be more guarded for sheep and pigs than for goats

Question 37

A recent study described the occurrence of footrot in wild alpine ibex.

What is the primary etiologic agent?
- How does it survive?
- What animals appear to be the maintenance hosts in switzerland?
- What is an improtant secondary agent?

What was the main risk factor for ibex getting the disease?

Answer 37

Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 57(2), 2021, pp. 327–337
OCCURRENCE OF FOOTROT IN FREE-RANGING ALPINE IBEX (CAPRA IBEX) COLONIES IN SWITZERLAND

Key Points
- Footrot
– Caused by Dichelobacter nodosus – trauma or humidity can favor bacterial invasion
– Can survive in the enrivonment up to 14d, up to 6 weeks if hoof trimming from sheep are left
– In sheep strains are classified by virulence – AprB2 gene is benign, AprV2 is virulent – both strains have been associated with disease in Ibex
– Healthy carriers include sheep, cattle, goats, llamas, and alpacas
– Sheep and cattle appear to be the maintenance hosts in the area
- Secondary infections with Fusobacterium necrophorum can exacerbate the disease
- For Ibex, using wet, north-facing pastures at middle elevations and with contact of domestic sheep may enhance the likelihood of infection with D. nodosus.
- D. nododsus was only detected in ibex with foot lesions
- Presence of sheep with footrot was the primary risk fat for footrot in ibex
– Presence of salt licks was not significant, but may promote aggregation points that favor interspecific transmission

Take Home: Footrot, caused by Dichelobacter nodosus, occurs in Alpine ibex exposed to pastures with infected sheep

Question 38

A recent study described the common causes of morbidity and mortality in Takin.

What are some of the reported zoonotic disease reported in this species?

What were the most common causes of morbidity in this study?
- For neonates?
- Juveniles (what parasites)
- Adults

What were the most common cuases of mortality in this study?
- How did that differ for males versus females?
- What were the big diseases?

Answer 38

Jourdan, B., Garner, M. M., Joyner, P. H., Ramer, J., & Zimmerman, D. (2021).
Morbidity and mortality of takin (budorcas taxicolor) in north american zoological institutions from 1997 to 2017.
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine, 52(1), 157-165.

Key Points:
- Takin (Budorcas taxicolor) – Ungulate native to high altitudes of Himalayan Mountains. Bovidae.
– 4 spp: Golden takin (B. taxicolor bedfordi), Mishmi takin (B. taxicolor taxicolor), Bhutan takin (B. taxicolor whitei), Sichuan takin (B. taxicolor tibetana).
– Sichuan takin most common in North American zoos.
– Majority of wild takin found in China, vulnerable.
– Zoonotic dz ID in takin – orf, cryptosporidium spp, giardia intestinalis, enterocytozoon bieneusi, brucellosis.
– Recent report on periparturient takin and correlation with lameness due to hypertrophic osteopathy.
- Three most freq causes of morbidity – infectious or inflammatory dz (presenting as lameness, respiratory signs, or diarrhea), degenerative dz (lameness), trauma.
– Hoof cracks and overgrown hooves common across institutions.
– Most common cause of morbidity among neonates was trauma.
– Most common cause of morbidity in juveniles and adults was infectious/inflammatory, mostly endoparasites (Eimeria spp and strongyles).
– Lameness – Mostly males with DJD (from mounting/sparring), mostly forelimbs. May be because it is easier to notice a ‘head bob’. Other studies in bovids typically see more lameness in hindlimbs.
- Most common causes of mortality were infectious/inflammatory disease (sepsis, pneumonia, osteomyelitis, laminitis, enterocolitis, endocarditis, nephritis – not endoparasitism), trauma, DJD.
– Males most likely to die of trauma. Females infectious/inflammatory disease. Senior animals most likely ‘to die of degenerative diseases’ but were all ultimately euthanized for it.
– Majority of euthanized animals were adults or seniors vs natural cause of death for neonates and juveniles.

Question 39

A recent study described the clinical signs, diagnostics, and pathological findings of Johne’s disease in Mishmi takin.

What is the scientific name of the Mishmi takin?

What is the etiologic agent of Johne’s disease?

How did these animals present?

How were they diagnosed?

What findings were found on necropsy?

What is the gold standard to confirm MAP infection?

Answer 39

CLINICAL SIGNS, ANTEMORTEM DIAGNOSTICS, AND PATHOLOGICAL FINDINGS ASSOCIATED WITH MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM SUBSPECIES PARATUBERCULOSIS INFECTION IN MISHMI TAKIN (BUDORCAS TAXICOLOR TAXICOLOR)
Naylor et al. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 49(2): 412–419, 2018

Case Report
- CS: Weight loss over 1-3 mo; behavioral and postural changes (abdominal pain), reduced appetite, malaise
– Diarrhea in only 2 animals - occurred late in disease
- Organism not found in feces and CBC/biochem WNL
- Antemortem serologic testing for MAP antibodies using indirect ELISA – 5 out of 9 animals positive
- Necropsy – enlarged, edematous mesenteric LN’s with small foci; intestinal tract normal
- Histo –marked granulomatous inflammation in mesenteric LNs and intestinal tract; periportal hepatitis
– More similar to disease in ovine and caprine, rather than bovine, with extensive macrophage infiltration and focal necrosis and mineralization
- ZN staining for AF organisms positive in intestinal and/or mesenteric LN’s in all cases

Discussion: Low sensitivity of ZN fecal staining - variable shedding and inability to differentiate MAP from other bacteria
- Fecal culture gold standard for confirmation of MAP infection – specificity near 100%
- Sensitivity higher in advanced stages when shedding is highest
- Serologic tests for MAP in domestic cattle: ELISA (most sensitive and specific, but highly dependent on disease stage), Complement fixation, and agar gel immunodiffusion
- Control methods – wildlife reservoir reduction (i.e. rabbits) and vaccination
– New live attenuated vaccines may provide superior protection compared to inactivated vx and may eliminate shedding
– Vaccines may interfere with serologic tests and ID tuberculin test

Take-away: First report of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis in Mishmi takin – which appear to be highly susceptible and have rapid disease course compared to domestic ruminants.

Question 40

A recent study investigated the concordance between two PCR assays in detecting Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae in Alaskan wildlife.

What are the diseases associated wtih Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae?

How did the two PCR assays compare?

Answer 40

JWD 2022 58(2):257-268
Laboratory concordance study for the molecular detection of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae
Lieske CL, Herndon DR, Highland MA, Beckmen KB

M. ovipneumoniae: associated with multifactorial, polymicrobial respiratory disease in Caprinae
- Association with high mortality in bighorn sheep, muskoxen pneumonia epizootics, and broncho-pneumonia in mountain goat kids
- Incidentally detected in Alaskan Dall’s sheep and non-Caprinae species (moose, caribou)
– Major implications for wildlife health management
– Especially translocation and reintroduction programs of wild sheep

TLDR: Good concordance between PCR assays for M. ovipneumoniae in Alaskan Caprinae and non-Caprinae species (moose, caribou)

Question 41

A recent study investigated the presence of the giant liver fluke in Bighorn Sheep in the Rocky Mountains.

What is the scientific name of the BIghorn Sheep?

What is the scientific name of the Giant Liver Fluke?

Describe the life cycle of the GIant Liver Fluke.
- What are dead-end hosts?
- What are aberrant hosts?

Answer 41

J Wildl Dis. 2022;58(3):592-598
Fascioloides magna In Free-Ranging Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis)
Mathieu A, Thacker C, Teske I, et al

Background:
- Giant liver fluke (Fascioloides magna) = digenetic trematode, wide ungulate host range
- Definitive hosts: elk, white-tailed deer, and caribou
– Mature flukes encapsulate within liver -> eggs carried to GI tract in bile -> shed in feces
– Eggs hatch in water/moist feces into miracidia -> enter aquatic snail intermediate host
– Develop into cercariae -> leave snail and encyst on aquatic and semiaquatic vegetation
– Susceptible ungulates consume vegetation contaminated with encysted metacercariae
– Activated larvae migrate through the intestinal wall ultimately to the liver
– Infections are generally benign because of host adaptation and encapsulation
- Dead-end hosts: moose, bison, domestic cattle, and horses
– Fluke eggs trapped in the liver and are not shed into the environment
- Aberrant hosts: domestic sheep, domestic goats, and bighorn sheep
– Immature flukes penetrate the intestinal wall, do not encapsulate in the liver, and can migrate extensively within the abdominal and pleural cavities
– This can contribute to severe liver and multisystemic pathology, and even death
- BHS face difficult challenges, including enzootic verminous pneumonia; epizootic bacterial pneumonia; predation; human disturbance; and habitat loss, fragmentation, and alienation

TLDR: Giant liver flukes are pathogenic in BHS and represent a threat to conservation in F. magna–enzootic regions

Question 42

A recent study investigated the use of laryngeal mask ariways in anesthetized bighorn sheep.

What anesthetic protocol did they use?

How did physgiologic parameters change after its use?

Answer 42

JZWM 2022 53(3) 537-544
A PRELIMINARY STUDY TO EVALUATE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LARYNGEAL MASK AIRWAYS IN ANESTHETIZED BIGHORN SHEEP (OVIS CANADENSIS) LAMBS

Key Points:
- Used medetomidine, azaperone, alfaxalone
- Ruminal tympany was a common observation
- Lambs had increase in RR, VE, and corrected PaCo2, TCO2, HCO3, and BE after LMA was place - BUT NO INCREASE in PaO2