Genetics Flashcards by Water Falls

A segment or segments of a DNA molecule, which in turn, makes up a chromosome.

Gene

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Genes control the production of _ or substances that determine the traits of an organism.

proteins

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Genes control the production of _ or substances that determine the traits of an organism. Their kind and amount determine the size, shape, and characteristics of living things.

proteins

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These are mainly of proteins.

Organisms

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The process that takes place in ribosomes through which the cells generate new proteins.

Protein Synthesis

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Protein Synthesis involves these nuclein acids.

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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Protein Synthesis involves these two major processes.

transcription and translation

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Protein Synthesis involves these two major processes.

transcription and translation

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The DNA code is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated to _. They form proteins that determine the appearance and functions of cells and organisms.

Polypeptides

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In this process, before a protein can be synthesized, the DNA information or code must first be copied or transcribed to a type of RNA called mRNA (messenger RNA). The DNA codes that are transcribed into mRNA are carried as units called “codons”.

Transcription

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How many nitrogenous bases does each codon consist?

Three (3)

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Before a protein can be synthesized, the DNA information or code must first be copied or transcribed to a type of RNA called _ (messenger RNA).

mRNA

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The DNA codes that are transcribed into mRNA are carried as units called “_”. These are usually written as the first letters of their bases.

codons

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The codon AUG stands for the sequence of nitrogenous bases:

adenine, uracil, and guanine

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In _, transcription in nucleus.

eukaryotic cells

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In eukaryotic cells, transcription in _.

nucleus

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After transcription, the resulting mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the?

cytoplasm

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In the cytoplasm, the mRNA attaches to a?

ribosome

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During this process, the code carried by the mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids that will form the protein molecule.

Translation

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The process of translation takes place in the?

ribosome

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Another type of RNA floating in the cytoplasm that carries a special triplet of bases called “anticodon”, which is complementary to a codon in the mRNA molecules.

tRNA (transfer RNA)

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A special triplet of bases which is complementary to a codon in the mRNA molecules.

anticodon

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During translation, the anticodon on the _ with the appropriate codon in the mRNA.

tRNA base-pairs

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It carries also the amino acid corresponding to the mRNA codon.

tRNA

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Translation starts with a corresponding tRNA binding with the start codon, which is the _, of an mRNA.

AUG

AUG codes for the amino acid, _.

methione

This moves along the mRNA and adds the amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.

ribosome

When the ribosome encounters a stop codon (_, _, or _), it detaches from the mRNA. This is the termination stage of translation.

UAA, UAG, or UGA

The product of translation. It has to undergo post-translational modification first before it becomes a functional protein.

polypeptide chain

The entire process of protein synthesis or gene expression is best described by the so-called _ --- a principle that unifies the processes of replication, transcription, and translation. This principle expresses indirectly the involvement of RNA molecules that serve as intermediary molecules between DNA and the proteins the DNA codes for.

central dogma of molecular biology

An error that occurs in one of the genes, as when the base G in the DNA molecule is submitted by the base A. It can cause a cell to produce an incorrect protein resulting in a phenotype that is different from what is normally expected.

Mutation

DNA molecules are packed in these threadlike structures. These may comprise the complete or partial genetic material of an organism.

chromosomes

The DNA proteins are tightly wound around these proteins.

histones

The condensed form of eukaryotic chromosomes are visible under the light microscope in the _ stage of cell division.

metaphase

A replicated and condensed chromosome may have an _.

x-shaped appearance

It is one of the two arms of the chromosomes.

chromatid

The constriction point of a chromosome where the chromatids touch.

centromere

Chromosomes have two sections or "_".

arms

Chromosomes have two sections or "arms"---the _ refers to the short arm.

p arm

Chromosomes have two sections or "arms"---the _ refers to the long arm.

q arm

How many chromosomes do bacteria have (which are circular in shape)?

one (1) or two (2) chromosomes

How many chromosomes do humans have?

23 chromosomes

The first _ chromosomes are identical in both male and female humans.

The first 22 chromosomes are identical in both male and female humans are called?

autosomal chromosomes

The twenty-third pair differs between males and females. This pair comprises the?

sex chromosomes

A type of mutation that involves a long segment of DNA. It may involve changes in parts of a chromosome or in the entire set of chromosomes. This usually occurs during mitosis or meiosis.

Chromosomal Mutation

The two general types of chromosomal mutation.

Numerical Mutation and Structural Mutation

It results from nondisjunction, or the failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis or meiosis.

Numerical mutation

Nondisjunction during meiosis produces _ that can produce abnormal offspring.

abnormal gametes

The failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis or meiosis.

Nondisjunction

Changes in chromosome number such as the addition or deletion of one or more chromosomes.

anueploidy

The addition of one chromosome to the normal 2N.

trisomy (2N+1)

The deletion of a chromosome from the normal chromosome number 2N.

monosomy (2N-1)

_ and _ in humans can be disruptive to the extent that it can kill the embryo.

Trisomy and monosomy

Aneuploidy in certain chromosomes pairs can result in the survival of an offspring, but with severe abnormalities or developmental difficulties, such as?

mental retardation and sterility

A human chromosome trisomy involving nondisjunction of the 21st pair of autosomes.

Trisomy 21 or Down Syndrome

Characteristics of Trisomy 21:

* short stature * short and broad hands * mental retardation * heart problems * short life span

This could be a contributing factor to Trisomy 21. The frequency increases with age.

Maternal age or paternal age

Women between 35 and 39 years of age are _ times more likely to have a child with Down syndrome than women aged 15 to 19.

seven times

The frequency increases to _ times for women 40 to 45 years old, and _ for women over 45.

20 times; 50

This results from nondisjunction involving entire sets of chromosomes.

Polyploidy

It has an extra set or several complete sets of chromosomes.

polyploid organism

Tomatoes with _ sets of chromosomes have a higher Vitamin C content than normal.

four

Some species of _, _, _, _, and _ come from polyploid plants.

wheat, cane sugar, arabica coffee, bananas, and potatoes

The four types of structural mutations in chromosomes.

translocation, inversion, deletion, duplication

The transfer of genetic material between two non-homologous chromosomes.

Translocation

The most common form of Translocation involves _ and _.

a single break in each of the two chromosomes and an exchange of broken pieces

The movement of a segment of human chromosome 22 to chromosome 9 is associated with a form of cancer called _. This results in the proliferation of certain white blood cells in the bone marrow.

myeloid leukemia

This involves two breaks in a chromosome, followed by the broken ends reattaching in reverse order.

Inversion

The two types of inversions.

paracentric and pericentric inversions

In this type of inversion, both breaks occur in one arm of the chromosome.

Paracentric Inversion

In this type of inversion, the centromere is involved and each arm has a break point.

Pericentric Inversion

This is usually caused by breaks in a chromosome and a consequent loss of one or more genes. Its effects increase in severity as the number of lost selections or genes increases.

Deletion

An example of genetic effect due to deletion. It results from the loss of a segment of chromosome 5. Manifestations include an abnormally small head, widely spaced eyes, mental retardation, and a monotone, weak cat-like cry.

cri du chat (French phrase for "cry of the cat") syndrome

This occurs when portions of chromosomes are present in multiple copies. The effects are believed to be less severe than deletions and are difficult to detect in humans.

Duplication

Produce genetically modified organisms, therapeuride organisms.

Applied Genetics

Branch of Biology studying hereditary information.

Genetics

What makes up an organism. This is the representation of genes/allele. Denoted by letters. A set of genes that inherited.

Genotype

The observable or physical traits/characteristics of an organism. Straight hair, fair complexion, tan, Widow's peak, straight hairline.

Phenotype

The passing of characteristics from parents to offspring.

Heredity

All living organisms must carry, store, and produce a vast amount of _ that allow organisms to grow, produce, and function.

genetic information

Rr, rr

Homozygous

Rr, Ss, Tt, Bb

Heterozygous

Skin color, height, eye color, earlobe shape, hairline

Traits

A way to determine/predict the outcome of offspring and know the probability of outcome (generation). Equal to 4.

Punnett Square

He came up with Punnett Square.

Reginald C. Punnett

parental gen.

P1 generation

first filial gen

F1 generation

2nd filial gen

Used by Gregor Johann Mendel to study/observe different characteristics. Has the presence of observable traits with contributing forms. Produces many offspring. Short life cycle. Cross manipulation

pea plant

Two types of Cross Manipulation

Monohybrid cross (crossing a single trait only) and Dihybrid cross (two traits)

Building blocks of proteins. 20.

amino acids