Genetics Flashcards
A segment or segments of a DNA molecule, which in turn, makes up a chromosome.
Gene
Genes control the production of _ or substances that determine the traits of an organism.
proteins
Genes control the production of _ or substances that determine the traits of an organism. Their kind and amount determine the size, shape, and characteristics of living things.
proteins
These are mainly of proteins.
Organisms
The process that takes place in ribosomes through which the cells generate new proteins.
Protein Synthesis
Protein Synthesis involves these nuclein acids.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Protein Synthesis involves these two major processes.
transcription and translation
Protein Synthesis involves these two major processes.
transcription and translation
The DNA code is transcribed into RNA, which is then translated to _. They form proteins that determine the appearance and functions of cells and organisms.
Polypeptides
In this process, before a protein can be synthesized, the DNA information or code must first be copied or transcribed to a type of RNA called mRNA (messenger RNA). The DNA codes that are transcribed into mRNA are carried as units called “codons”.
Transcription
How many nitrogenous bases does each codon consist?
Three (3)
Before a protein can be synthesized, the DNA information or code must first be copied or transcribed to a type of RNA called _ (messenger RNA).
mRNA
The DNA codes that are transcribed into mRNA are carried as units called “_”. These are usually written as the first letters of their bases.
codons
The codon AUG stands for the sequence of nitrogenous bases:
adenine, uracil, and guanine
In _, transcription in nucleus.
eukaryotic cells
In eukaryotic cells, transcription in _.
nucleus
After transcription, the resulting mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters the?
cytoplasm
In the cytoplasm, the mRNA attaches to a?
ribosome
During this process, the code carried by the mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids that will form the protein molecule.
Translation
The process of translation takes place in the?
ribosome
Another type of RNA floating in the cytoplasm that carries a special triplet of bases called “anticodon”, which is complementary to a codon in the mRNA molecules.
tRNA (transfer RNA)
A special triplet of bases which is complementary to a codon in the mRNA molecules.
anticodon
During translation, the anticodon on the _ with the appropriate codon in the mRNA.
tRNA base-pairs
It carries also the amino acid corresponding to the mRNA codon.
tRNA
Translation starts with a corresponding tRNA binding with the start codon, which is the _, of an mRNA.
AUG
AUG codes for the amino acid, _.
methione
This moves along the mRNA and adds the amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.
ribosome
When the ribosome encounters a stop codon (_, _, or _), it detaches from the mRNA. This is the termination stage of translation.
UAA, UAG, or UGA
The product of translation. It has to undergo post-translational modification first before it becomes a functional protein.
polypeptide chain
The entire process of protein synthesis or gene expression is best described by the so-called _ — a principle that unifies the processes of replication, transcription, and translation. This principle expresses indirectly the involvement of RNA molecules that serve as intermediary molecules between DNA and the proteins the DNA codes for.
central dogma of molecular biology
An error that occurs in one of the genes, as when the base G in the DNA molecule is submitted by the base A. It can cause a cell to produce an incorrect protein resulting in a phenotype that is different from what is normally expected.
Mutation
DNA molecules are packed in these threadlike structures. These may comprise the complete or partial genetic material of an organism.
chromosomes
The DNA proteins are tightly wound around these proteins.
histones
The condensed form of eukaryotic chromosomes are visible under the light microscope in the _ stage of cell division.
metaphase
A replicated and condensed chromosome may have an _.
x-shaped appearance
It is one of the two arms of the chromosomes.
chromatid
The constriction point of a chromosome where the chromatids touch.
centromere
Chromosomes have two sections or “_”.
arms
Chromosomes have two sections or “arms”—the _ refers to the short arm.
p arm
Chromosomes have two sections or “arms”—the _ refers to the long arm.
q arm
How many chromosomes do bacteria have (which are circular in shape)?
one (1) or two (2) chromosomes
How many chromosomes do humans have?
23 chromosomes
The first _ chromosomes are identical in both male and female humans.
22
The first 22 chromosomes are identical in both male and female humans are called?
autosomal chromosomes
The twenty-third pair differs between males and females. This pair comprises the?
sex chromosomes
A type of mutation that involves a long segment of DNA. It may involve changes in parts of a chromosome or in the entire set of chromosomes. This usually occurs during mitosis or meiosis.
Chromosomal Mutation
The two general types of chromosomal mutation.
Numerical Mutation and Structural Mutation
It results from nondisjunction, or the failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis or meiosis.
Numerical mutation
Nondisjunction during meiosis produces _ that can produce abnormal offspring.
abnormal gametes
The failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis or meiosis.
Nondisjunction
Changes in chromosome number such as the addition or deletion of one or more chromosomes.
anueploidy
The addition of one chromosome to the normal 2N.
trisomy (2N+1)
The deletion of a chromosome from the normal chromosome number 2N.
monosomy (2N-1)
_ and _ in humans can be disruptive to the extent that it can kill the embryo.
Trisomy and monosomy
Aneuploidy in certain chromosomes pairs can result in the survival of an offspring, but with severe abnormalities or developmental difficulties, such as?
mental retardation and sterility
A human chromosome trisomy involving nondisjunction of the 21st pair of autosomes.
Trisomy 21 or Down Syndrome
Characteristics of Trisomy 21:
- short stature
- short and broad hands
- mental retardation
- heart problems
- short life span
This could be a contributing factor to Trisomy 21. The frequency increases with age.
Maternal age or paternal age
Women between 35 and 39 years of age are _ times more likely to have a child with Down syndrome than women aged 15 to 19.
seven times
The frequency increases to _ times for women 40 to 45 years old, and _ for women over 45.
20 times; 50
This results from nondisjunction involving entire sets of chromosomes.
Polyploidy
It has an extra set or several complete sets of chromosomes.
polyploid organism
Tomatoes with _ sets of chromosomes have a higher Vitamin C content than normal.
four
Some species of _, _, _, _, and _ come from polyploid plants.
wheat, cane sugar, arabica coffee, bananas, and potatoes
The four types of structural mutations in chromosomes.
translocation, inversion, deletion, duplication
The transfer of genetic material between two non-homologous chromosomes.
Translocation
The most common form of Translocation involves _ and _.
a single break in each of the two chromosomes and an exchange of broken pieces
The movement of a segment of human chromosome 22 to chromosome 9 is associated with a form of cancer called _. This results in the proliferation of certain white blood cells in the bone marrow.
myeloid leukemia
This involves two breaks in a chromosome, followed by the broken ends reattaching in reverse order.
Inversion
The two types of inversions.
paracentric and pericentric inversions
In this type of inversion, both breaks occur in one arm of the chromosome.
Paracentric Inversion
In this type of inversion, the centromere is involved and each arm has a break point.
Pericentric Inversion
This is usually caused by breaks in a chromosome and a consequent loss of one or more genes. Its effects increase in severity as the number of lost selections or genes increases.
Deletion
An example of genetic effect due to deletion. It results from the loss of a segment of chromosome 5. Manifestations include an abnormally small head, widely spaced eyes, mental retardation, and a monotone, weak cat-like cry.
cri du chat (French phrase for “cry of the cat”) syndrome
This occurs when portions of chromosomes are present in multiple copies. The effects are believed to be less severe than deletions and are difficult to detect in humans.
Duplication
Produce genetically modified organisms, therapeuride organisms.
Applied Genetics
Branch of Biology studying hereditary information.
Genetics
What makes up an organism. This is the representation of genes/allele. Denoted by letters. A set of genes that inherited.
Genotype
The observable or physical traits/characteristics of an organism. Straight hair, fair complexion, tan, Widow’s peak, straight hairline.
Phenotype
The passing of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Heredity
All living organisms must carry, store, and produce a vast amount of _ that allow organisms to grow, produce, and function.
genetic information
Rr, rr
Homozygous
Rr, Ss, Tt, Bb
Heterozygous
Skin color, height, eye color, earlobe shape, hairline
Traits
A way to determine/predict the outcome of offspring and know the probability of outcome (generation). Equal to 4.
Punnett Square
He came up with Punnett Square.
Reginald C. Punnett
parental gen.
P1 generation
first filial gen
F1 generation
2nd filial gen
F2
Used by Gregor Johann Mendel to study/observe different characteristics. Has the presence of observable traits with contributing forms. Produces many offspring. Short life cycle. Cross manipulation
pea plant
Two types of Cross Manipulation
Monohybrid cross (crossing a single trait only) and Dihybrid cross (two traits)
Building blocks of proteins. 20.
amino acids
