General Chemistry Flashcards
A branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter
Chemistry
Deals with chemical processes that occur in living organisms
Biochemistry
Works with fundamental principles of physics and chemistry
Physical Chemistry
Separation and identification of chemical substances
Analytical Chemistry
Focuses on substances that contain carbon and hydrogen in combination with a few other elements
Organic Chemistry
Focuses on most of the elements other than carbon
Inorganic Chemistry
Anything that occupies space (or has volume), displays a property known as mass, and possess inertia; can be a pure chemical substance or a mixture of substances
Matter
Refers to the parts or components of a sample of matter and their relative proportions
Composition
The qualities or attributes that can be used to distinguish one sample of matter from others
Properties
one that a sample of matter displays without changing its composition
Physical property
a physical property of a system that does not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system
Intensive property (bulk property)/intrinsic property
one that is additive for independent, non-interacting subsystems
Extensive property/extrinsic property
the ability (or inability) of a sample of matter to undergo a change in composition under stated conditions
Chemical property
a modern version of the metric system; a decimal system
SI = Système Internationale d’Unités (International System of Units)
Refers to how close a measured value is tothe accepted, or “real,” value
Accuracy
Refers to the degree of reproducibility of ameasured quantity
Precision
Not determined by chance but is introduced by an inaccuracy (as of observation ormeasurement) inherent in the system
Systematic Errors
Caused by inherently unpredictablefluctuations in the readings of a measurement apparatus or in the experimenter’s interpretation of the instrumental reading
Random errors
describes the QUANTITY OF METTER in an object; SI unit, kilogram (kg)
Mass (𝒎)
the force of gravity on an object 𝑊=𝑔×𝑚
Weight (𝑾)
those of length, mass, time, temperature, amount of substance, electric current, and luminous intensity (SI units)
Fundamental (base) quantities
combinations of certain of these fundamental quantities; e.g., velocity (m/s), volume (cm3 or cc or mL), density (g/mL)
Derived units
term applied to elements and compounds (whose composition and properties are uniform throughout a given sample and from one sample to another)
Substance
a substance made up of only a single type of atom distinguished by its atomic number, which is the number of protons in its atomic nucleus; divided into metals, metalloids, and nonmetals; 118 known chemical elements (as of 2010); 98 chemical elements occur naturally on earth
Element
the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element
Atom
substance in which atoms of different elements are combined with one another
Compound
the smallest entity having the same proportions of the constituent atoms as does the compound as a whole
Molecule
made of two or more types of substances
Mixtures
uniform in composition and properties throughout a given sample, but the composition and properties may vary from one sample to another
Solutions (homogeneous mixtures)
whose components separate into distinct regions; the composition and physical properties vary from one part of the mixture to another
Heterogeneous mixtures
occurs when a sample of matter changes its physical appearance; its composition remains unchanged; includes changes in texture, color, temperature, shape, state
Physical change
when one or more samples of matter are converted to new samples with different compositions; indications include change in temperature, change in color, noticeable odor, formation of a precipitate, formation of bubbles
Chemical change
State of matter that maintains a fixed volume and shape,with component particles (atoms, molecules or ions) [IFA] close together and fixed into place
Molecular Motion: Vibration
Solid
States of Matter that maintains a fixed volume, but has a variable shape that adapts to fit its container. Its particles [IFA] are still close together but move freely
Molecular Motion: Gliding
Liquid
States of Matter: has both variable volume and shape, adapting both to fit its container. Its particles [IFA] are neither close together nor fixed in place
Molecular Motion: Constant random motion
Gas
States of Matter: has variable volume and shape, but as well as neutral atoms, it contains a significant number of ions and electrons, both of which can move around freely
Plasma
The state or phase of a given set of matter can change depending on pressure and temperature conditions.
State of Matter
Phase Transitions: Solid to Liquid
Melting (Fusion)
Phase Transitions: Liquid to Gas
Vaporization
Phase Transitions: Gas to Plasma
Ionization
Phase Transitions: Plasma to Gas
Deionization
Phase Transitions: Gas to Liquid
Condensation
Phase Transitions: Liquid to Solid
Freezing
Phase Transitions: Solid to Gas
Sublimation
Phase Transitions: Gas to Solid
Deposition
Chemical Reaction: two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance
Synthesis
Chemical Reaction: when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts
Decomposition
Chemical Reaction: a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound, one element trades places with another element in a compound
Single Replacement
Chemical Reaction: the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds
Double Replacement
Chemical Reaction: involves a transfer of protons (H+) from one species (the acid) to another (the base)
Neutralization (acid-base reaction)
Chemical Reaction: the formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical reaction
Precipitation
Chemical Reaction: when ligands (with lone pairs) react with a metal atom (with empty orbitals) to form a coordination complex
Complexation
Chemical Reaction: transfer of electrons from one involved species (reducing agents) to another (oxidizing agent); the former species is oxidized and the latter is reduced
Reduction and oxidation (redox reaction)
Chemical Reaction: when atoms and molecules absorb energy (photons) of the illumination light and convert into an excited state; energy is released by breaking chemical bonds
Photochemical reaction
Chemical Reaction: very slow reaction between solids
Solid-state reaction
Chemical Reaction: surfaces at very low pressure such as ultra-high vacuum
Reaction at the solid-gas interphase
The total mass of substances present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass of substances before the reaction.
Law of Conservation of Mass
All samples of a compound have the same composition—the same proportions by mass of the constituent elements.
Law of Constant Composition (Law of Definite Proportions)
If two elements can be combined to form a number of possible compounds, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small whole numbers.
Law of Multiple Proportions
Atomic Models: all matter was composed of small indivisible particles called atoms (atomos, Gr. “uncuttable”)
Democritus
Atomic Models: “billiard ball model” (1808); proposed that each chemical element is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and though they cannot be altered or destroyed by chemical means, they can combine to form more complex structures
John Dalton
Atomic Models: “plum pudding model” (1903); discovered the electron through his work on cathode rays
J.J. Thomson
Atomic Models: “nuclear/planetary model” (1911); discovered that most of the mass and positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a very small fraction of its volume, which he assumed to be at the very center
Ernest Rutherford
A type of particle that carry two fundamental units of charge; same mass as He
Alpha (α) particles
A type of negatively charged particles produced by changes occurring within the nuclei of radioactive atoms; same properties as electrons
Beta (β) particles
Atomic Models: “shell model” (1923); electrons are arranged around the nucleus in discrete energy levels or shells
Neils Bohr
Atomic Models: “electron cloud model”; assumes that the electron is a wave and tries to describe the regions in space, or orbitals, where electrons are most likely to be found
Erwin Schrödinger
made the first cathode ray tube (CRT)
Michael Faraday
determined the electronic charge e through a series of “oil drop” experiments; e = –1.6022x10^-19 C me = 9.1094x10^-28 g
Robert Millikan
discovered X-rays
Wilhelm Roentgen
discovered radioactivity
Antoine Henri Becquerel
discovered gamma (γ) radiation, which is not made of particles
Paul Villard
discovered transmutation (fundamental changes at the subatomic level in which one element is changed into another in radioactive decay
Frederick Soddy (and Rutherford)
(1932) discovered neutral particles called neutrons that originate from the nuclei of atoms
James Chadwick
The more precisely the position is determined, the less precisely the momentum is known in this instant, and vice versa.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
the sets of numerical values which give acceptable solutions to the Schrödinger wave equation for the hydrogen atom
Quantum Numbers
Quantum Numbers: the electron shell, or energy level, of an atom
Principal quantum number (n)
Quantum Numbers: describes the subshell: l = 0 (s orbital); 1 (p orbital), 2 (d orbital), 3 (f orbital)
Azimuthal quantum number (l)/ angular quantum number or orbital quantum number;
Quantum Numbers: describes the specific orbital (or “cloud”) within that subshell; orientation of the subshell’s shape; range from −l to l
Magnetic quantum number (ml)
Quantum Numbers: describes the spin (intrinsic angular momentum) of the electron within that orbital
Spin projection quantum number (ms)
States that it is impossible for two electrons of an atom to have the same values of the four quantum numbers (n, l, ml and ms).
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle (Wolfgang Pauli (1925))
-coined by Robert Mulliken in 1932 as an abbreviation for one-electron orbital wave function - mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom - the region in space where an electron is most likely to be found
Atomic Orbitals: sharp (s orbital, l = 0) principal (p orbital, l = 1) diffuse (d orbital, l = 2) fundamental/fine (f orbital, l = 3)
The distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule in atomic or molecular orbitals
Electron Configuration
Electron Configuration: (from the German aufbau, “building up, construction”) – the lowest-energy orbitals are filled before electrons are placed in higher-energy orbitals
Aufbau’s principle
“bus seat rule”; the orbitals of the subshell are each occupied singly with electrons of parallel spin before double occupation occurs
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
exactly 1/12 of the mass of an unbound neutral atom of carbon-12 in its nuclear and electronic ground state; equivalent to 1 Da (dalton)
Unified atomic mass unit (amu or u)
the number of protons in an atom
Atomic number (proton number, Z)
the total number of protons and neutrons (nucleons)
Mass number (A)
the number of neutrons; A – Z
Neutron number
the average of the isotopic masses weighted according to the naturally occurring abundances of the isotopes of the element
Atomic mass (atomic weight)
the general term used to describe an atom with a particular atomic number and mass number
Nuclides
two or more atoms having the same atomic number (Z) or number of protons, but different mass numbers (A) or number of neutrons
Isotopes
nuclides of equal number of neutrons, but different number of protons
Isotones
atoms of different chemical elements that have the same number of nucleons; differ in atomic number, but have the same mass number
Isobars
nuclides with equal proton number and equal mass number, but different states of excitation
Nuclear isomers
neutron and proton number exchanged
Mirror nuclei
unstable and radioactive nuclides
Radionuclides
decay products
Radiogenic nuclides
an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter
Quark
composite particles made of quarks, e.g., protons (2 up quarks + 1 down quark) and neutrons (3 quarks)
Hadron
composite subatomic particles made up of 3 quarks; e.g., neutron
Baryon
any baryon containing on or more strange quarks, but no charm, bottom, or top quark
Hyperon
composed of one quark and one antiquark, bound together by a strong interaction; about 2/3 the size of a proton or neutron; charged mesons decay to form electrons and neutrinos; uncharged mesons may 67 decay to photons
Meson
an elementary, half-integer spin particle that does not undergo strong interactions; e.g., electron
Lepton
neutral leptons
Neutrino
a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized on the basis of their atomic number, electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties
Periodic Table of Elements
Periodic Table of Elements: places similar elements
vertical groups (or families)
Periodic Table of Elements: horizontal rows
periods
published a list of 33 elements grouped into gases, metals, nonmetals, and earths
Antoine Lavoisier
Law of Triads (1829), e.g., Li, Na, K were grouped together as soft, reactive metals
Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner
(1858) observed valency
August Kekulé
(1862) first noticed the periodicity of elements; published an early form of periodic table called the telluric helix (or screw)
Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois
Law of Octaves (1863 to 1866)
John Newlands
Categories of Elements: generally malleable and ductile; good conductors of heat and electricity; lustrous and shiny
Metals
Categories of Elements: “opposite” properties of metals
Nonmetals
Categories of Elements: have some metallic and some nonmetallic properties; e.g., B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, At
Metalloids
Categories of Elements: have complete octet; e.g., He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
Noble gas
Categories of Elements: the series of 14 elements that follow 57La at Period 6
Lanthanides
Categories of Elements: the series of 14 elements that follow 89Ac at Period 7
Actinides
