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Kavin Rajendran > General Anatomy > Flashcards

General Anatomy Flashcards

1
Q

What does dermatome and myotome means ?

A

Dermatome : unilateral area of skin receiving innervation from a single spinal nerve
Myotome : unilateral area of skeletal muscle receiving innervation from a single spinal nerve

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2
Q

How many spinal nerves do we have ?

A 
31 pairs 
8-cervical
12-thoracic
5-lumbar
5-sacral
1-coccygeal
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3
Q

What are the outflows for sympathetic and parasympathetic ?

A

Sympathetic - thoraco-lumbar outflow

Parasympathetic-carniosacral outflow

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4
Q

What is the characteristics of nervous tissue ?

A

Irritability

Conductivity

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5
Q

How do we classify the neurons ?

A

1) morphology
2) function
3) size of axon

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6
Q

What is a neuroglial cell?

A
  • nervous connective tissue cells

- provide microenvironment for neuronal activity

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7
Q

What are the 4 types of neuroglial cells and their functions ?

A

1) astrocytes
- structural support
- increase or decrease blood supply
- blood brain barrier
2) microglial
- inflammatory and repair in CNS
3) Ependymal
- secrete cerebrospinal fluid
4) oligodendrocytes
- form myelin in CNS

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8
Q

There are 2 types of astrocytes

What are they and where are they located?

A

Protoplasmic-grey matter

Fibrous-white matter

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9
Q

Why does damage to cell body cannot be repaired ?

A
  • no mitosis

- no precursor cells

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10
Q

What is a nissl granule ?

A

RER and Golgi

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11
Q

Which part of a neuron cell does not have nissl granules ?

A

Axon hillocks

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12
Q

Which region can you find white rami communicantes and gray rami communicantes ?

A

White & gray - thoracic and lumbar

Gray - other regions

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13
Q

What is the difference between oligodendrocytes and schwann cell ?

A

O - make myelin for axon at cns
- can myelinate multiple axon at once
S - make myelin for axon at pns
- can myelinate on the part they are at

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14
Q

Maternal blood is delivered to the placenta by the ……… arteries in the uterus.

A

Spiral

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15
Q

Preeclampsia is a condition characterized by maternal hypertension,…………, and ……. appears to be a ………… disorder

A

proteinuria
edema
trophoblastic

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16
Q

Villi on the embryonic pole continue to grow giving rise to?

A

Chorion frondosum(bushy chorion)

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17
Q

Chorion frondosum + decidua basalis = ?

A

Placenta

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18
Q

What is the site of physiologic exchanges between mother and fetus?

A

Placenta

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19
Q

What is the function of cotyledons?

A

Receive blood from the spiral arteries that pierce the decidual plate and enter the intervillous spaces at regular intervals

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20
Q 
The placental membrane consist of ?
i)
ii)
iii)
iv) Connective tissue in the villous core
A

Syncytium
Cytotrophoblastic layer
Endothelial lining of fetal vessels

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21
Q

The chorionic vessels converge towards the ……………?

A

umbilical cord

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22
Q

During the first two months, the syncytiotrophoblast produce …….., which maintains the ………

A

Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), Corpus luteum

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23
Q

What is placenta previa?

A

A common cause of bleeding in later part of gestation and during parturition.

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24
Q

Labor is divided into 3 stages. What are those?

A
  1. Thinning and shortening of dilation of the cervix
  2. Delivery of the fetus
  3. Delivery of placenta and fetal membranes
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25
Q

Placental changes at the end of the pregnancy due to reduced exchange between the two circulations.

State two changes.

A

i) Increase in the fibrous tissue in the core of the villus

ii) Thickening of the basement membranes in fetal capillaries

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26
Q

Top surface of epithelial tissue?

A

Apical surface

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27
Q

What type of epithelial tissue would make up salivary, sweat, oil, and mammary glands?

A

simple cuboidal

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28
Q

Commonly known as fat storage.

A

ADIPOSE

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29
Q

An epithelial membrane consists of __________ tissue.

A

epithelial and connective

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30
Q

Endocrine and exocrine are both glands that develop from epithelial sheets.

A. TRUE B. FALSE

A

A. TRUE

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31
Q

Goblet cells secrete

A

Mucus

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32
Q

A group of organized __________ working together forms __________. An organized group of the latter work together to form __________.

A

cells; tissue; organ

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33
Q

The epithelial membrane that surrounds the heart and lungs separately is called a __________ membrane.

A

serous

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34
Q

Part of the actual cell breaks away in order to release its products. What type of gland ?

A

merocrine

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35
Q

Mucous that protects your stomach lining is secreted by which type of epithelial cell?

A

columnar epithelial cells

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36
Q

what is the function of exocrine gland?

A

To secrete substances onto body surfaces or into body cavities.

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37
Q

what type of tissue used for protection, wear and tear?

A

Stratified squamous tissue

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38
Q

What is connective tissue?

A

It is the tissue that protect, support and bind together to other tissue.

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39
Q

What type of connective tissue fibre is inelastic but flexible

A

Collagen fibre

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40
Q

Commonly known as fat storage. Forms the subcutaneous layer beneath skin.

A

adipose tissue

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41
Q

Component of connective tissue ?

A

-living cell and ECM

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42
Q

Osteocytes are stationary cells sitting in small depressions in the bone matrix. These small depressions are called __________.

A

Lacunae

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43
Q

what does areolar connective tissue serves as

A
  • packaging material for organs and tissues,
  • holds water
  • soaks up excess fluid in inflamed areas,
  • swelling edema
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44
Q

What is a connective tissue mostly of collagen fibers that forms sheets under the skin and helps attach?

A

fascia

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45
Q

Dense, regular tissue is full of _____________ fibers, making it hard to break apart.

A

collagen

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46
Q

What are the characteristics of compact bone? What is its function?

A
  • Osteocytes, osteons, haversian canals, lamallae

- Support/stability, storage of substances

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47
Q

what function do mast cells have?

A

release substances that are involved in inflammation, immunity, tissue repair

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48
Q

Where is dense regular connective tissue found?

A

Tendons and ligaments

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49
Q

Functions of bone?

A
  • for support
  • as levers for muscles
  • for protection
  • production of blood cells
  • storehouses for Ca2+ and phosphate
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50
Q

What are the 2 types of bone

A

compact bone and spongy bone

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51
Q

What are parts of long bone

clue: got 8 parts

A 
Diaphysis
epiphysis
epiphyseal plate - growth plate
cancellous bone
compact bone
periosteum 
marrow cavity
articular cartilage
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52
Q

Bone surface markings got 3 types what are they & give examples

A

Elevation
Facets
Depressions
*for example refer lecture notes slide 21 of GA 4

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53
Q

On the 5th day after fertilization, the embryo called as

A

Blastocyst

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54
Q

Define Trophoblast and Embryoblast.

A

T-Cells of outer cell mass.

B-Cells of inner cell mass.

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55
Q

Embryoblast differentiates into

A

Hypoblast and Epiblast

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56
Q

Trophoblast differentiates into

A

Syncytiotrophoblast

Cytotrophoblast

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57
Q

The extraembryonic coelom refers to

A

amniotic cavity, yolk sac and chorionic cavity

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58
Q

What are the two main early embryonic developmental roles of the notochord

A

mechanical role in embryonic disc folding and signaling for tissue patterning.

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59
Q

Ectoderm refers only to the neural plate region of the trilaminar embryo
True or False

A

False

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60
Q

Which of the following statements is incorrect about the process of gastrulation

A) Mechanical role in embryonic disc folding and signaling for tissue patterning
B) Formation of the nucleus pulposis and separating cloacal and buccopharyngeal membranes
C) Gastrulation and neuralation
D) Formation of the nucleus pulposis and intervertebral disc

A

Answer : A

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61
Q

Which of the following statements about the blastocyst is most correct

A) the blastocyst forms from the 2 blastomere stage
B) the blastocyst has a cavity lined with endoderm
C) the blastocyst stage occurs after hatching from the zona pellucida
D) the blastocyst has an embryoblast and trophoectoderm layer

A

Answer : D

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62
Q

What is s extra-embryonic

mesoderm ?

A

New population of cells arise from the epiblast and form a fine loose connective tissue in between the cytotrophoblast externally and the amnion and Heuser’s membrane internally.

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63
Q

How does the chronic cavity is formed?

A

When the lacunae become confluent (unite with one

another),the chronic cavity is formed.

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64
Q

2 types of cartilage growth ? describe them a little

A

Appositional Growth - cartilage increase in width, new cartilage forms on pre-existing cartilage

Interstitial Growth- cartilage increases in length, results from mitotic division of pre-existing cartilage

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65
Q

What is gastrulation ?

A

Gastrulation is the formative process by which the three germ layers and axial orientation are established in the embryo.

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66
Q

What is the first sign of

gastrulation.

A

Formation of primitive streak

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67
Q

What is the importance of notochord?

A

❖gives some rigidity to the embryo.
❖serves as a basis for development of the axial skeleton.
❖indicates the future site of the vertebral bodies.
❖induces overlying ectoderm to thicken and form neural plate.

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68
Q

What are the muscle characteristics ?

A

excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity

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69
Q

List main 4 types of muscle action.

A

agonist, antagonist, synergist and fixators

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70
Q

The movable attachment of muscle is called ?

A

Insertion

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71
Q

During flexion, bicep branchii act as ______while triceps ______

A

agonist, antagonist (relax)

72
Q

What gives muscle fiber compartment?

A

osteofascial septum

73
Q

Functional muscle test have 6 grades , which grade shows normal muscle function ?

A 
Grade 5
Grade 4 good
Grade 3 can move against gravity
Grade 2 weak movement
Grade 1 twitch
Grade 0 no movement
74
Q

2 types of ossification?

A

Intramembranous ossification & Endochondral ossification

75
Q

What is sacrolemma, sacroplasm, sarcosomes in muscle?

A

Sacrolemma : plasma membrane
Sacroplasm : cytoplasm
Sarcosomes : mitochondria

76
Q

Distance between two Z line is called ?

A

Sacromere

77
Q

Basic concept of muscle fiber :

Muscle, muscle fiber bundle, muscle fiber, myofibrils and ______

A

myofilaments

78
Q

Endomysium is ______

A

loose connective tissue composed of reticular fibers supporting individual muscle fibers

79
Q

Briefly explain sliding filament theory.

A

Thin and thick filament slide over one another causing the shortening of sacromere under the influence of ATP and calcium ion. Thick and thin filament does NOT shortening.

80
Q

Isotonic concentric is shortening of muscle while isotonic excentric is lengthening of muscle.
Statement is true or false ?

A

True

81
Q

What is isometric contraction ?

A

It is when the muscle contract, but there no shortening.

82
Q

Example of muscle abnormalities ?

A

spasm, tic, fasciculation

83
Q

Fine movement is used in larger or smaller motor unit ?

A

smaller because it more precise for fine movement, example eyes

84
Q

What is the function of Periosteal arteries & Epiphyseal veins?

A

Periosteal : supply blood to periosteum & compact bone

Epiphyseal: carry blood away from long bones

85
Q

What is Avascular necrosis (AVN) / osteonecrosis?

A
  • a process, occurs when there is a disruption of blood supply to bone
  • result in bone dying & collapsing
  • also caused by trauma like fracture/ dislocation
    eg: scaphoid or hip fracture
86
Q

What is heterotropic ossification?

State 1 example

A
  • process where bone tissue forms outside of the skeleton usually in the soft tissue
  • rider’s bone
87
Q

Bone matrix consist of ?

A
  • inorganic mineral salts (hardness)

- organic collagen fibers (flexibility)

88
Q

What are the 2 types of bone marrow?

what do they produce?

A 
red marrow ( myeloid) - RBC, platelets & most of WBC
yellow marrow- some WBC
89
Q

Do haemopoietic stem cells produce body fat, cartilage & bone?

A
  • No
  • Those are produced by Stromal stem cells
  • haemopoietic produces blood cells
90
Q

axial skeleton consist of ?

appendicular skeleton consist of ?

A

axial : skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column & thoracic cage
appendicular: shoulder girdles, upper limb, pelvic girdle, lower limb

91
Q

Is bone a living tissue?

Why?

A

YES

- it has blood vessels, lymph vessels & nerves

92
Q

What is the definition of osteoporosis and osteomalacia?

A

Osteoporosis_ demineralization of bones

Osteomalacia- reduction of bone mineral density

93
Q

What are the 3 types of cartilage ?

A

Hyaline cartilage
elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage

94
Q

Which of the 2 cartilage tend to ossify

A

Hyaline cartilage & fibrocartilage

95
Q

What happens in degeneration of cartilage?

Which cartilage is like to undergo this?

A
  1. cartilage stops growing ( chondrocytes stops dividing)
  2. Cells increase in size & volume
  3. Cell death
  4. calcification of matrix occurs
  5. causes restricted mobility & joint pain

Hyaline cartilage

96
Q

Describe growth of cartilage

A

*refer lecture slide 18, 19, 20 :)

97
Q

What are the 2 types of cell in cartilage

A

Chondroblast & chondrocyte

98
Q

Chondrocytes are arranged in small clusters called isogenic groups

A

Trueeee :)

99
Q

Who builds the cartilage

A

Chondroblasts

100
Q

What are the 2 cells Osteoprogenitor cells can develop into?

A
  • osteoblast

- chondroblast ( under low O2 tension)

101
Q

Osteoclasts are located in ?

A

Howship lacunae

102
Q

What is the functional unit of spongy & compact bone?

A 
spongy = trabaculae
compact = osteons
103
Q

Is ossification, bone formation ?

A

Yess

104
Q

2 types of ossification?

A

Intramembranous & Endochondral

105
Q

What is intramembranous ossification?

A

formation of bone directly from fibrous connective tissue membrane

106
Q

What is endochondral ossification?

A

formation of bone from hyaline cartilage models

107
Q

What are the 4 zones of the Epiphyseal plate

A
  1. proliferation zone
  2. hyperthrophic zone
  3. calcification zone
  4. ossification zone
108
Q

Explain bone growth in thickness / diameter

A
  • appositional growth
  • osteoclasts reabsorb old bone that lines medullary cavity
  • osteoblast via intramembranous ossification produce new bone tissue beneath periosteum
  • the process is called modelling
109
Q

What is bone remodelling?

A
  • ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue
110
Q

What affects Bone growth

A
  • nutrition

- specific hormones

111
Q

Hyposecretion of growth hormone (GH) lead to ?

A

Dwarfism

112
Q

Hypersecretion of growth hormone (GH) lead to?

A

Gigantism

113
Q

What happens in bone fracture healing?

Clue: Got 4 main steps

A
  1. Formation of hematoma
  2. formation of fibrocartilagenous (soft) callus
  3. formation of bony (hard) callus
  4. bone remodelling
114
Q

Ossification center in intramembranous ossification?

A

osteoblast in a cluster

115
Q

In Endochondral ossification what is the

a) primary ossification center?
b) secondary ossification center

A

a) a region deep in the periosteal collar

b) the epiphyseal regions ( each center of the activity is ossification center)

116
Q

A flap of tissue that prevents blood from flowing backward.

A

Valve

117
Q

Thin-walled vessels that allow for the exchange of O2 , CO2, nutrients and wastes between blood cells or air sacs in the lungs.

A

Capillaries

118
Q

What electrical part of the heart is also called the pacemaker of the heart?

A

SA node

119
Q

Platelets are cell fragments that

A
  • help blood to clot

* Release chemicals to form fibrin.

120
Q

Function of lymph node ?

A

filter out microorganisms and foreign materials taken in by the lymphocytes.

121
Q

What is lymphatic system?

A

Drains tissue fluids, waste products & fights against infection.

122
Q

What is systemic circulation?

A

System where oxygen-rich blood flows to all the organs and body tissues, except the heart and lungs, and oxygen-poor blood is returned to the heart.

123
Q

Largest lymphatic structure?

A

spleen

124
Q

Place in order that lymph travels through them:
A. lymph vessels
B. lymph nodes
C. lymph capillaries

A

C A B

125
Q

Why is the left side of the heart larger and more muscular than the right side?

A

because the left ventricle has to pump from the heart to the rest of body unlike the right ventricle which just has to pump blood to the lungs.

126
Q

What are the layers of the heart wall?

A

(1) Epicardium
(2) Myocardium
(3) Endocardium

127
Q

What are the types of joints by function, and describe their mobility.

A
  1. Synarthrosis (immovable)
  2. Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable)
  3. Diarthrosis (freely movable)
128
Q

What are the types of joints by structure, and describe their mobility.

A
  1. Fibrous (tend to be immovable)
  2. Cartilaginous (slightly movable)
  3. Synovial (freely movable)
129
Q

3 layers of skin

A

epidermis,dermis,hypodermis

130
Q

compare thick skin and thin skin

A

refer lecture slides hehe

131
Q

cells in the epidermis that undergo keratinization is called

A

keratinocytes

132
Q

thickest layer of epidermis

A

stratum spinosum

133
Q

function of melanocytes

A

form melanin

134
Q

why skin is impermeable to water

A

presence of keratin,desmosomes,hemidesmosomes,keratosomes

135
Q

role of Langerhans cells

A

antigen presenting cell

136
Q

Merkel’s cells

A

mechanoreceptor

137
Q

what produce finger prints

A

dermal papillae

138
Q

two layers off dermis

A

papillary and reticular

139
Q

function of krause end bulbs

A

thermoreceptors that sense cold temperature

140
Q

example of merocrine gland

A

sweat galnd

141
Q

example of holocrine gland

A

sebaceous glands

142
Q

What is the period of gestation (in weeks) of an embryo?

A

3 to 8 weeks of gestation

143
Q

What generally happens during the embryonic period?

A
  • Organogenesis (by mitosis & differentiation)

- External body form becomes recognisable

144
Q

By the end of the 3rd week of gestation, what is formed from the ectoderm?

A

Neural plate

145
Q

What forms when the neural fold fuses in the 21st day? And what can be recognised during this time?

A

Neural tube. The cranial & caudial neuropores.

146
Q

What is the Neural Crest?

A

Flattened mass between the neural tube & the overlying ectoderm

147
Q

phases of wound healing

A

inflammatory,migratory,proliferative,maturation

148
Q

define gametogenesis

A

biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor cells undergo division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes

149
Q

stages of mitosis

A

prophase,prometaphase,metaphase,anaphase,telophase

150
Q

define synapsis

A

pairing up of homologous chromosomes

151
Q

characteristics of cri-du-chat

A

mental retardation,cat like cry,deletion in short arm 5

152
Q

triple X characteristics

A

extra X chromosome,tall,limb defects

153
Q

when does oogonia maturation start?

A

at birth

154
Q

what is cytokinesis

A

splitting of cytoplasm

155
Q

why crossing over happens?

A

for exchange of DNA

156
Q

what induces pre-ovulatory growth

A

Leutinizing Hormone

157
Q

How is the Neural Crest formed?

A

Some neuroectodermal cells lose their attachment to form the neural crest

158
Q

List 3 derivatives of the neural crest

A
  • CT & bones of the face
  • Dermis in the face & neck
  • Leptomeninges
  • Glial cells
  • Cranial nerves
159
Q

List 3 ectodermal derivatives

A
  • CNS, PNS
  • Sensory epithelium of the eyes, nose, & ears
  • Epidermis & appendages
  • Subcutaneous & mammary glands
  • Pituitary gland
160
Q

List 3 mesoderm segments that organises on either sides of the notochord

A

Paraxial, intermediate, & lateral plate

161
Q

What does the paraxial mesoderm form? And what are it’s components?

A

Somites, components:

  • Sclerotomes
  • Myotomes
  • Dermotomes
162
Q

What does the intermediate mesoderm form? (2)

A
  • Excretory units of the urinary system

- Gonads

163
Q

What are the 2 layers that the lateral plate form? And what are their derivatives?

A

Somatic mesoderm:
- Body wall & limbs (except ribs & scapula)
Splanchnic mesoderm:
- Heart & smooth muscles of GIT & blood vessels

164
Q

What is the folding that produces the head & tail of the embryo called?

A

Cephalocaudal folding

165
Q

What is the folding that produces the right & left sides called?

A

Lateral folding

166
Q

When the amniotic cavity expands during lateral folding, what is obliterated?

A

Extra-embryonic ceolum, & the connection with the yolk sac

167
Q

Which week does the folding of the embryo ends & the neuropores closes?

A

4th Week

168
Q

During the 4th-8th Week, the embryo is developing. What is the features present in the embryo by the end of the 8th week?

A
  • Upper & lower limbs are formed
  • Digits are seperated
  • Scalp vascular plexus visible
169
Q

What (generally) happens during the feotal period?

A
  • Rapid growth of body
  • Maturation of tissues & organs
  • Growth in length & weight
170
Q

Where is the site of erythropoiesis in:
The 12th week?
The 28th week?

A

12th week: Spleen

28th week: Bone Marrow

171
Q

What is the function of the Vernix Caseosa?

A

Protects feotal skin from the amniotic fluid

172
Q

Why is there more brown fat in a feotus?

A

To produce heat by oxidising fatty acids

173
Q

Calculate EDD using Naegele’s method:

LMP: 1 August 2020

A

EDD: 8 May 2021

Substract 3 months, & add 7 days and one year

174
Q

List the methods to determine the age of embryo

A
  • Ultrasound
  • Feotal length & weight
  • 4-6 weeks: Somites are visible
  • 7-14 weeks: CRL
  • 16-30 weeks: BPD, head & abdominal circumference, length of femur
175
Q

What’s the appearance of a baby with post maturity syndrome?

A
  • Dry skin
  • Skin folds & long nails
  • Overweight

Kavin Rajendran (12 decks)

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