General Anatomy Flashcards
What does dermatome and myotome means ?
Dermatome : unilateral area of skin receiving innervation from a single spinal nerve
Myotome : unilateral area of skeletal muscle receiving innervation from a single spinal nerve
How many spinal nerves do we have ?
31 pairs 8-cervical 12-thoracic 5-lumbar 5-sacral 1-coccygeal
What are the outflows for sympathetic and parasympathetic ?
Sympathetic - thoraco-lumbar outflow
Parasympathetic-carniosacral outflow
What is the characteristics of nervous tissue ?
Irritability
Conductivity
How do we classify the neurons ?
1) morphology
2) function
3) size of axon
What is a neuroglial cell?
- nervous connective tissue cells
- provide microenvironment for neuronal activity
What are the 4 types of neuroglial cells and their functions ?
1) astrocytes
- structural support
- increase or decrease blood supply
- blood brain barrier
2) microglial
- inflammatory and repair in CNS
3) Ependymal
- secrete cerebrospinal fluid
4) oligodendrocytes
- form myelin in CNS
There are 2 types of astrocytes
What are they and where are they located?
Protoplasmic-grey matter
Fibrous-white matter
Why does damage to cell body cannot be repaired ?
- no mitosis
- no precursor cells
What is a nissl granule ?
RER and Golgi
Which part of a neuron cell does not have nissl granules ?
Axon hillocks
Which region can you find white rami communicantes and gray rami communicantes ?
White & gray - thoracic and lumbar
Gray - other regions
What is the difference between oligodendrocytes and schwann cell ?
O - make myelin for axon at cns
- can myelinate multiple axon at once
S - make myelin for axon at pns
- can myelinate on the part they are at
Maternal blood is delivered to the placenta by the ……… arteries in the uterus.
Spiral
Preeclampsia is a condition characterized by maternal hypertension,…………, and ……. appears to be a ………… disorder
proteinuria
edema
trophoblastic
Villi on the embryonic pole continue to grow giving rise to?
Chorion frondosum(bushy chorion)
Chorion frondosum + decidua basalis = ?
Placenta
What is the site of physiologic exchanges between mother and fetus?
Placenta
What is the function of cotyledons?
Receive blood from the spiral arteries that pierce the decidual plate and enter the intervillous spaces at regular intervals
The placental membrane consist of ? i) ii) iii) iv) Connective tissue in the villous core
Syncytium
Cytotrophoblastic layer
Endothelial lining of fetal vessels
The chorionic vessels converge towards the ……………?
umbilical cord
During the first two months, the syncytiotrophoblast produce …….., which maintains the ………
Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), Corpus luteum
What is placenta previa?
A common cause of bleeding in later part of gestation and during parturition.
Labor is divided into 3 stages. What are those?
- Thinning and shortening of dilation of the cervix
- Delivery of the fetus
- Delivery of placenta and fetal membranes
Placental changes at the end of the pregnancy due to reduced exchange between the two circulations.
State two changes.
i) Increase in the fibrous tissue in the core of the villus
ii) Thickening of the basement membranes in fetal capillaries
Top surface of epithelial tissue?
Apical surface
What type of epithelial tissue would make up salivary, sweat, oil, and mammary glands?
simple cuboidal
Commonly known as fat storage.
ADIPOSE
An epithelial membrane consists of __________ tissue.
epithelial and connective
Endocrine and exocrine are both glands that develop from epithelial sheets.
A. TRUE B. FALSE
A. TRUE
Goblet cells secrete
Mucus
A group of organized __________ working together forms __________. An organized group of the latter work together to form __________.
cells; tissue; organ
The epithelial membrane that surrounds the heart and lungs separately is called a __________ membrane.
serous
Part of the actual cell breaks away in order to release its products. What type of gland ?
merocrine
Mucous that protects your stomach lining is secreted by which type of epithelial cell?
columnar epithelial cells
what is the function of exocrine gland?
To secrete substances onto body surfaces or into body cavities.
what type of tissue used for protection, wear and tear?
Stratified squamous tissue
What is connective tissue?
It is the tissue that protect, support and bind together to other tissue.
What type of connective tissue fibre is inelastic but flexible
Collagen fibre
Commonly known as fat storage. Forms the subcutaneous layer beneath skin.
adipose tissue
Component of connective tissue ?
-living cell and ECM
Osteocytes are stationary cells sitting in small depressions in the bone matrix. These small depressions are called __________.
Lacunae
what does areolar connective tissue serves as
- packaging material for organs and tissues,
- holds water
- soaks up excess fluid in inflamed areas,
- swelling edema
What is a connective tissue mostly of collagen fibers that forms sheets under the skin and helps attach?
fascia
Dense, regular tissue is full of _____________ fibers, making it hard to break apart.
collagen
What are the characteristics of compact bone? What is its function?
- Osteocytes, osteons, haversian canals, lamallae
- Support/stability, storage of substances
what function do mast cells have?
release substances that are involved in inflammation, immunity, tissue repair
Where is dense regular connective tissue found?
Tendons and ligaments
Functions of bone?
- for support
- as levers for muscles
- for protection
- production of blood cells
- storehouses for Ca2+ and phosphate
What are the 2 types of bone
compact bone and spongy bone
What are parts of long bone
clue: got 8 parts
Diaphysis epiphysis epiphyseal plate - growth plate cancellous bone compact bone periosteum marrow cavity articular cartilage
Bone surface markings got 3 types what are they & give examples
Elevation
Facets
Depressions
*for example refer lecture notes slide 21 of GA 4
On the 5th day after fertilization, the embryo called as
Blastocyst
Define Trophoblast and Embryoblast.
T-Cells of outer cell mass.
B-Cells of inner cell mass.
Embryoblast differentiates into
Hypoblast and Epiblast
Trophoblast differentiates into
Syncytiotrophoblast
Cytotrophoblast
The extraembryonic coelom refers to
amniotic cavity, yolk sac and chorionic cavity
What are the two main early embryonic developmental roles of the notochord
mechanical role in embryonic disc folding and signaling for tissue patterning.
Ectoderm refers only to the neural plate region of the trilaminar embryo
True or False
False
Which of the following statements is incorrect about the process of gastrulation
A) Mechanical role in embryonic disc folding and signaling for tissue patterning
B) Formation of the nucleus pulposis and separating cloacal and buccopharyngeal membranes
C) Gastrulation and neuralation
D) Formation of the nucleus pulposis and intervertebral disc
Answer : A
Which of the following statements about the blastocyst is most correct
A) the blastocyst forms from the 2 blastomere stage
B) the blastocyst has a cavity lined with endoderm
C) the blastocyst stage occurs after hatching from the zona pellucida
D) the blastocyst has an embryoblast and trophoectoderm layer
Answer : D
What is s extra-embryonic
mesoderm ?
New population of cells arise from the epiblast and form a fine loose connective tissue in between the cytotrophoblast externally and the amnion and Heuser’s membrane internally.
How does the chronic cavity is formed?
When the lacunae become confluent (unite with one
another),the chronic cavity is formed.
2 types of cartilage growth ? describe them a little
Appositional Growth - cartilage increase in width, new cartilage forms on pre-existing cartilage
Interstitial Growth- cartilage increases in length, results from mitotic division of pre-existing cartilage
What is gastrulation ?
Gastrulation is the formative process by which the three germ layers and axial orientation are established in the embryo.
What is the first sign of
gastrulation.
Formation of primitive streak
What is the importance of notochord?
❖gives some rigidity to the embryo.
❖serves as a basis for development of the axial skeleton.
❖indicates the future site of the vertebral bodies.
❖induces overlying ectoderm to thicken and form neural plate.
What are the muscle characteristics ?
excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity
List main 4 types of muscle action.
agonist, antagonist, synergist and fixators
The movable attachment of muscle is called ?
Insertion
During flexion, bicep branchii act as ______while triceps ______
agonist, antagonist (relax)
What gives muscle fiber compartment?
osteofascial septum
Functional muscle test have 6 grades , which grade shows normal muscle function ?
Grade 5 Grade 4 good Grade 3 can move against gravity Grade 2 weak movement Grade 1 twitch Grade 0 no movement
2 types of ossification?
Intramembranous ossification & Endochondral ossification
What is sacrolemma, sacroplasm, sarcosomes in muscle?
Sacrolemma : plasma membrane
Sacroplasm : cytoplasm
Sarcosomes : mitochondria
Distance between two Z line is called ?
Sacromere
Basic concept of muscle fiber :
Muscle, muscle fiber bundle, muscle fiber, myofibrils and ______
myofilaments
Endomysium is ______
loose connective tissue composed of reticular fibers supporting individual muscle fibers
Briefly explain sliding filament theory.
Thin and thick filament slide over one another causing the shortening of sacromere under the influence of ATP and calcium ion. Thick and thin filament does NOT shortening.
Isotonic concentric is shortening of muscle while isotonic excentric is lengthening of muscle.
Statement is true or false ?
True
What is isometric contraction ?
It is when the muscle contract, but there no shortening.
Example of muscle abnormalities ?
spasm, tic, fasciculation
Fine movement is used in larger or smaller motor unit ?
smaller because it more precise for fine movement, example eyes
What is the function of Periosteal arteries & Epiphyseal veins?
Periosteal : supply blood to periosteum & compact bone
Epiphyseal: carry blood away from long bones
What is Avascular necrosis (AVN) / osteonecrosis?
- a process, occurs when there is a disruption of blood supply to bone
- result in bone dying & collapsing
- also caused by trauma like fracture/ dislocation
eg: scaphoid or hip fracture
What is heterotropic ossification?
State 1 example
- process where bone tissue forms outside of the skeleton usually in the soft tissue
- rider’s bone
Bone matrix consist of ?
- inorganic mineral salts (hardness)
- organic collagen fibers (flexibility)
What are the 2 types of bone marrow?
what do they produce?
red marrow ( myeloid) - RBC, platelets & most of WBC yellow marrow- some WBC
Do haemopoietic stem cells produce body fat, cartilage & bone?
- No
- Those are produced by Stromal stem cells
- haemopoietic produces blood cells
axial skeleton consist of ?
appendicular skeleton consist of ?
axial : skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column & thoracic cage
appendicular: shoulder girdles, upper limb, pelvic girdle, lower limb
Is bone a living tissue?
Why?
YES
- it has blood vessels, lymph vessels & nerves
What is the definition of osteoporosis and osteomalacia?
Osteoporosis_ demineralization of bones
Osteomalacia- reduction of bone mineral density
What are the 3 types of cartilage ?
Hyaline cartilage
elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage
Which of the 2 cartilage tend to ossify
Hyaline cartilage & fibrocartilage
What happens in degeneration of cartilage?
Which cartilage is like to undergo this?
- cartilage stops growing ( chondrocytes stops dividing)
- Cells increase in size & volume
- Cell death
- calcification of matrix occurs
- causes restricted mobility & joint pain
Hyaline cartilage
Describe growth of cartilage
*refer lecture slide 18, 19, 20 :)
What are the 2 types of cell in cartilage
Chondroblast & chondrocyte
Chondrocytes are arranged in small clusters called isogenic groups
Trueeee :)
Who builds the cartilage
Chondroblasts
What are the 2 cells Osteoprogenitor cells can develop into?
- osteoblast
- chondroblast ( under low O2 tension)
Osteoclasts are located in ?
Howship lacunae
What is the functional unit of spongy & compact bone?
spongy = trabaculae compact = osteons
Is ossification, bone formation ?
Yess
2 types of ossification?
Intramembranous & Endochondral
What is intramembranous ossification?
formation of bone directly from fibrous connective tissue membrane
What is endochondral ossification?
formation of bone from hyaline cartilage models
What are the 4 zones of the Epiphyseal plate
- proliferation zone
- hyperthrophic zone
- calcification zone
- ossification zone
Explain bone growth in thickness / diameter
- appositional growth
- osteoclasts reabsorb old bone that lines medullary cavity
- osteoblast via intramembranous ossification produce new bone tissue beneath periosteum
- the process is called modelling
What is bone remodelling?
- ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue
What affects Bone growth
- nutrition
- specific hormones
Hyposecretion of growth hormone (GH) lead to ?
Dwarfism
Hypersecretion of growth hormone (GH) lead to?
Gigantism
What happens in bone fracture healing?
Clue: Got 4 main steps
- Formation of hematoma
- formation of fibrocartilagenous (soft) callus
- formation of bony (hard) callus
- bone remodelling
Ossification center in intramembranous ossification?
osteoblast in a cluster
In Endochondral ossification what is the
a) primary ossification center?
b) secondary ossification center
a) a region deep in the periosteal collar
b) the epiphyseal regions ( each center of the activity is ossification center)
A flap of tissue that prevents blood from flowing backward.
Valve
Thin-walled vessels that allow for the exchange of O2 , CO2, nutrients and wastes between blood cells or air sacs in the lungs.
Capillaries
What electrical part of the heart is also called the pacemaker of the heart?
SA node
Platelets are cell fragments that
- help blood to clot
* Release chemicals to form fibrin.
Function of lymph node ?
filter out microorganisms and foreign materials taken in by the lymphocytes.
What is lymphatic system?
Drains tissue fluids, waste products & fights against infection.
What is systemic circulation?
System where oxygen-rich blood flows to all the organs and body tissues, except the heart and lungs, and oxygen-poor blood is returned to the heart.
Largest lymphatic structure?
spleen
Place in order that lymph travels through them:
A. lymph vessels
B. lymph nodes
C. lymph capillaries
C A B
Why is the left side of the heart larger and more muscular than the right side?
because the left ventricle has to pump from the heart to the rest of body unlike the right ventricle which just has to pump blood to the lungs.
What are the layers of the heart wall?
(1) Epicardium
(2) Myocardium
(3) Endocardium
What are the types of joints by function, and describe their mobility.
- Synarthrosis (immovable)
- Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable)
- Diarthrosis (freely movable)
What are the types of joints by structure, and describe their mobility.
- Fibrous (tend to be immovable)
- Cartilaginous (slightly movable)
- Synovial (freely movable)
3 layers of skin
epidermis,dermis,hypodermis
compare thick skin and thin skin
refer lecture slides hehe
cells in the epidermis that undergo keratinization is called
keratinocytes
thickest layer of epidermis
stratum spinosum
function of melanocytes
form melanin
why skin is impermeable to water
presence of keratin,desmosomes,hemidesmosomes,keratosomes
role of Langerhans cells
antigen presenting cell
Merkel’s cells
mechanoreceptor
what produce finger prints
dermal papillae
two layers off dermis
papillary and reticular
function of krause end bulbs
thermoreceptors that sense cold temperature
example of merocrine gland
sweat galnd
example of holocrine gland
sebaceous glands
What is the period of gestation (in weeks) of an embryo?
3 to 8 weeks of gestation
What generally happens during the embryonic period?
- Organogenesis (by mitosis & differentiation)
- External body form becomes recognisable
By the end of the 3rd week of gestation, what is formed from the ectoderm?
Neural plate
What forms when the neural fold fuses in the 21st day? And what can be recognised during this time?
Neural tube. The cranial & caudial neuropores.
What is the Neural Crest?
Flattened mass between the neural tube & the overlying ectoderm
phases of wound healing
inflammatory,migratory,proliferative,maturation
define gametogenesis
biological process by which diploid or haploid precursor cells undergo division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes
stages of mitosis
prophase,prometaphase,metaphase,anaphase,telophase
define synapsis
pairing up of homologous chromosomes
characteristics of cri-du-chat
mental retardation,cat like cry,deletion in short arm 5
triple X characteristics
extra X chromosome,tall,limb defects
when does oogonia maturation start?
at birth
what is cytokinesis
splitting of cytoplasm
why crossing over happens?
for exchange of DNA
what induces pre-ovulatory growth
Leutinizing Hormone
How is the Neural Crest formed?
Some neuroectodermal cells lose their attachment to form the neural crest
List 3 derivatives of the neural crest
- CT & bones of the face
- Dermis in the face & neck
- Leptomeninges
- Glial cells
- Cranial nerves
List 3 ectodermal derivatives
- CNS, PNS
- Sensory epithelium of the eyes, nose, & ears
- Epidermis & appendages
- Subcutaneous & mammary glands
- Pituitary gland
List 3 mesoderm segments that organises on either sides of the notochord
Paraxial, intermediate, & lateral plate
What does the paraxial mesoderm form? And what are it’s components?
Somites, components:
- Sclerotomes
- Myotomes
- Dermotomes
What does the intermediate mesoderm form? (2)
- Excretory units of the urinary system
- Gonads
What are the 2 layers that the lateral plate form? And what are their derivatives?
Somatic mesoderm:
- Body wall & limbs (except ribs & scapula)
Splanchnic mesoderm:
- Heart & smooth muscles of GIT & blood vessels
What is the folding that produces the head & tail of the embryo called?
Cephalocaudal folding
What is the folding that produces the right & left sides called?
Lateral folding
When the amniotic cavity expands during lateral folding, what is obliterated?
Extra-embryonic ceolum, & the connection with the yolk sac
Which week does the folding of the embryo ends & the neuropores closes?
4th Week
During the 4th-8th Week, the embryo is developing. What is the features present in the embryo by the end of the 8th week?
- Upper & lower limbs are formed
- Digits are seperated
- Scalp vascular plexus visible
What (generally) happens during the feotal period?
- Rapid growth of body
- Maturation of tissues & organs
- Growth in length & weight
Where is the site of erythropoiesis in:
The 12th week?
The 28th week?
12th week: Spleen
28th week: Bone Marrow
What is the function of the Vernix Caseosa?
Protects feotal skin from the amniotic fluid
Why is there more brown fat in a feotus?
To produce heat by oxidising fatty acids
Calculate EDD using Naegele’s method:
LMP: 1 August 2020
EDD: 8 May 2021
Substract 3 months, & add 7 days and one year
List the methods to determine the age of embryo
- Ultrasound
- Feotal length & weight
- 4-6 weeks: Somites are visible
- 7-14 weeks: CRL
- 16-30 weeks: BPD, head & abdominal circumference, length of femur
What’s the appearance of a baby with post maturity syndrome?
- Dry skin
- Skin folds & long nails
- Overweight
