Gender Identity

Question 1

What is gender?

1/ Biological characteristics that distinguish ‘male’/ ‘female’ sexes (such as genitalia and hormones) which are usually (not always) denoted before/ at birth and develop further during puberty
2/ Our knowledge and understanding of ‘male’ and ‘female’ (& other) categories

Answer 1

2/ Our knowledge and understanding of ‘male’ and ‘female’ (& other) categories

Question 2

What is sex?

1/ Biological characteristics that distinguish ‘male’/ ‘female’ sexes (such as genitalia and hormones) which are usually (not always) denoted before/ at birth and develop further during puberty
2/ Our knowledge and understanding of ‘male’ and ‘female’ (& other) categories

Answer 2

1/ Biological characteristics that distinguish ‘male’/ ‘female’ sexes (such as genitalia and hormones) which are usually (not always) denoted before/ at birth and develop further during puberty

Question 3

What is social identity?

1/ Knowing this group membership cannot normally be changed transiently
2/ The component of one’s self-concept which derives from the membership in a particular social group
3/ The notion that group membership denoted by sex is normally ‘stable’ over time (and permanent)
4/ Beliefs of what is appropriate for, or typical of males/females

Answer 3

2/ The component of one’s self-concept which derives from the membership in a particular social group

…as well as the value and emotional significance of the membership

Question 4

What is gender stability?

1/ Knowing this group membership cannot normally be changed transiently
2/ The component of one’s self-concept which derives from the membership in a particular social group
3/ The notion that group membership denoted by sex is normally ‘stable’ over time (and permanent)
4/ Beliefs of what is appropriate for, or typical of males/females

Answer 4

3/ The notion that group membership denoted by sex is normally ‘stable’ over time (and permanent)

“When you grow up, will you be a [man or woman]?” “Were you always a [boy/girl]?” (Slaby & Frey, 1975)

Question 5

What is gender constancy?

1/ Knowing this group membership cannot normally be changed transiently
2/ The component of one’s self-concept which derives from the membership in a particular social group
3/ The notion that group membership denoted by sex is normally ‘stable’ over time (and permanent)
4/ Beliefs of what is appropriate for, or typical of males/females

Answer 5

1/ Knowing this group membership cannot normally be changed transiently

“If this boy grows his hair really long wears a skirt, will he be a boy or a girl?” “If you really want to be a girl, can you become a girl? (S & F, 1975)

Question 6

According to Kohlberg, which is needed for gender consistency?

1/ Biological characteristics + stability + identity
2/ Biological characteristics + stability + constancy
3/ Identity + sociability + constancy
4/ Identity + stability + constancy

Answer 6

4/ Identity + stability + constancy

Question 7

What are gender stereotypes?

1/ Knowing this group membership cannot normally be changed transiently
2/ The component of one’s self-concept which derives from the membership in a particular social group
3/ The notion that group membership denoted by sex is normally ‘stable’ over time (and permanent)
4/ Beliefs of what is appropriate for, or typical of males/females

Answer 7

4/ Beliefs of what is appropriate for, or typical of males/females

Question 8

Who proposed “Parental Investment Theory”

1/ Lawrence Kohlberg
2/ Robert Trivers
3/ Albert Bandura
4/ Sandra Bem

Answer 8

2/ Robert Trivers

…predicts that the sex that invests more in its offspring will be more selective when choosing a mate, and the less-investing sex will have intra-sexual competition for access to mates

Question 9

Which of the below are not seen as challenges to the biological account of gender differences?

1/ The John/Joan case
2/ A rise in gender identity disorder/dysphoria with no detected biological correlate
3/ Limited evidence in gender differences in pre-socialised infants/young children

Answer 9

1/ The John/Joan case

Twin with penis severely damaged in botched procedure and subsequently raised as a girl (from between 1-2yrs) subsequently transitioned back to being a male at 15, and suffered severe problems and ultimately died by suicide

Question 10

According to social learning theories, gender identity is…

1/ Given
2/ Innate
3/ Acquired
4/ Dependent on the situation

Answer 10

3/ Acquired

…a product of accumulated learning

Question 11

Which of the below describes the following statement? Behaving in gender-appropriate manners results in reward, whereas behaving in cross-gender manners results in punishment.

1/ Modelling
2/ Classical conditioning
3/ Pairing
4/ Reinforcement

Answer 11

4/ Reinforcement

Question 12

Which of the below describes the following statement? Observation of others’ behaviour and consequences as examples of gender norms or illustrations of conformity

1/ Modelling
2/ Classical conditioning
3/ Pairing
4/ Reinforcement

Answer 12

1/ Modelling

Question 13

Which of the below are not seen as challenges to the social learning account of gender differences?

1/ Young children’s stereotypes tend to be even stronger than parents
2/ As most caregivers or educators are women, boys and girls both have more exposure to female models
3/ The concept of peers as agents
4/ Modelling effects are inconsistent; adults perform many activities that children do not engage in (and vice versa)

Answer 13

3/ The concept of peers as agents

This supports social learning theories in that children reinforce conformity of gender identity within a peer group

Question 14

Who is responsible for adapting Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory?

1/ Lawrence Kohlberg
2/ Robert Trivers
3/ Albert Bandura
4/ Sandra Bem

Answer 14

1/ Lawrence Kohlberg

…gender concepts follow growth of cognitive abilities

Question 15

According to Kohlberg’s Cognitive-developmental Theory, gender labelling occurs at which stage?

1/ Stage 1 (2.5-3.5 years)
2/ Stage 2 (3.5-4.5 years)
3/ Stage 3 (4.5-7 years)
4/ It happens prior to the listed age ranges.

Answer 15

1/ Stage 1 (2.5-3.5 years)

Question 16

According to Kohlberg’s Cognitive-developmental Theory, gender stability occurs at which stage?

1/ Stage 1 (2.5-3.5 years)
2/ Stage 2 (3.5-4.5 years)
3/ Stage 3 (4.5-7 years)
4/ It happens prior to the listed age ranges.

Answer 16

2/ Stage 2 (3.5-4.5 years)

Question 17

According to Kohlberg’s Cognitive-developmental Theory, gender consistency occurs at which stage?

1/ Stage 1 (2.5-3.5 years)
2/ Stage 2 (3.5-4.5 years)
3/ Stage 3 (4.5-7 years)
4/ It happens prior to the listed age ranges.

Answer 17

3/ Stage 3 (4.5-7 years)

Question 18

According to Kohlberg’s Cognitive-developmental Theory, gender stereotyping occurs at which stage?

1/ Stage 1 (2.5-3.5 years)
2/ Stage 2 (3.5-4.5 years)
3/ Stage 3 (4.5-7 years)
4/ It happens prior to the listed age ranges.

Answer 18

4/ It happens prior to the listed age ranges.

Question 19

According to Kohlberg’s Cognitive-developmental Theory, gender-segregated play occurs at which stage?

1/ Stage 1 (2.5-3.5 years)
2/ Stage 2 (3.5-4.5 years)
3/ Stage 3 (4.5-7 years)
4/ It happens prior to the listed age ranges.

Answer 19

4/ It happens prior to the listed age ranges.

Question 20

Who proposed gender schema theory?

1/ Lawrence Kohlberg
2/ Robert Trivers
3/ Albert Bandura
4/ Sandra Bem

Answer 20

4/ Sandra Bem

Question 21

According to gender schema theory, __________ is ‘enough’ to form and activate a gender schema?

1/ Gender stereotyping
2/ Gender constancy
3/ Gender stability
4/ Gender labelling

Answer 21

4/ Gender labelling

Question 22

Gender schema theory is a ___________ approach

1/ Information-processing
2/ Biological
3/ Nativist
4/ Social constructionist

Answer 22

1/ Information-processing

Question 23

Who split masculinity and femininity into dimensions (rather than polar opposites)?

1/ Lawrence Kohlberg
2/ Robert Trivers
3/ Albert Bandura
4/ Sandra Bem

Answer 23

4/ Sandra Bem

Question 24

In Bem’s gender dimensions model, an androgynous person is characterised by

1/ High masculinity, low femininity
2/ Low masculinity, high femininity
3/ High masculinity, high femininity
4/ Low masculinity, low femininity

Answer 24

3/ High masculinity, high femininity

Question 25

In Bem’s gender-role dimensions model, an undifferentiated person is characterised by

1/ High masculinity, low femininity
2/ Low masculinity, high femininity
3/ High masculinity, high femininity
4/ Low masculinity, low femininity

Answer 25

4/ Low masculinity, low femininity

Question 26

According to Bem’s gender-role dimension model, which characteristics are associated with high self esteem?

1/ Androgynous or undifferentiated
2/ Androgynous or masculine
3/ Androgynous or feminine
4/ Masculine or feminine

Answer 26

2/ Androgynous or masculine

…in light of masculine ‘bias’ in Western (& patriarchal) societies both sexes tend to place more value on ‘traditionally masculine’ qualities such as independence and competitiveness (Berk, 2014)

Question 27

According to research, preadolescence is a period of relative intolerance of cross-gender transgression…

1/ Particularly among boys
2/ Particularly among girls
3/ Among boys and girls

Answer 27

1/ Particularly among boys

Question 28

Who proposed the gender intensification hypothesis?

1/ Hill and Lynch
2/ Sandra Bem
3/ Lawrence Kohlberg
4/ Jean Piaget

Answer 28

1/ Hill and Lynch

Question 29

What is the gender intensification hypothesis?

1/ Boys experience increased pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender roles during adolescence
2/ Girls experience increased pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender roles during adolescence
3/ Girls and boys experience increased pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender roles during adolescence
4/ Girls and boys experience increased pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender roles during preadolescence

Answer 29

3/ Girls and boys experience increased pressure to conform to culturally sanctioned gender roles during adolescence

Question 30

The understanding that one’s gender group membership is normally unchangeable by changes to outward appearance or mere intention is termed:

1/ Gender labelling
2/ Gender stability
3/ Gender constancy
4/ Gender intensification

Answer 30

3/ Gender constancy

Question 31

In the social learning approach, when gender roles are learnt through observing and imitating gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate behaviour and their consequences, this is referred to as:

1/ Observation
2/ Modelling
3/ Reinforcement
4/ All of the above

Answer 31

2/ Modelling

Question 32

Which one of the following is true of Kohlberg’s Cogntive-Developmental Theory
in relation to Bem’s Gender Schema Theory:

1/ The key gender cognition for stereotypic tendencies in CDT is constancy vs. GST’s labelling
2/ The key gender cognition required for CDT is labelling vs. GST’s constancy
3/ Both theories posit that both gender labelling and constancy are required
4/ In both theories neither gender labelling nor constancy are essential in their key premises

Answer 32

1/ The key gender cognition for stereotypic tendencies in CDT is constancy vs. GST’s labelling

Question 33

In Bem’s (1974) account, ‘androgynous’ individuals are:

1/ Females that score high on masculinity traits
2/ Males that score high on femininity traits
3/ Either males or females that score high on both sets of traits
4/ Either males or females that score low on both sets of traits

Answer 33

3/ Either males or females that score high on both sets of traits

Question 34

The ‘gender intensification’ hypothesis for adolescence predicts a:

1/ Shift towards more traditional or stereotypic gender attitudes and identity, esp. for boys
2/ Shift towards more traditional or stereotypic gender attitudes and identity, esp. for girls
3/ Shift towards less traditional or stereotypic gender attitudes and identity, esp. for boys
4/ Shift towards less traditional or stereotypic gender attitudes and identity, esp. for girls

Answer 34

2/ Shift towards more traditional or stereotypic gender attitudes and identity, esp. for girls

Question 35

Understanding one’s gender category as normally permanent or unchanged through time is:

1/ Gender labelling
2/ Gender stability
3/ Gender constancy
4/ Gender intensification

Answer 35

2/ Gender stability

Question 36

The biological account of gender identity proposes that psychological differences between men and women can be explained by:

1/ Experiments with animals
2/ Biology and evolution
3/ Hemispheric specialisation
4/ Reinforcement of behaviours within the family context

Answer 36

2/ Biology and evolution

Question 37

Some research showing that infants who were less than two years old preferred to look towards gender-appropriate toys, when the toys were unfamiliar to them, challenged schema theories of gender development because:

1/ The toys were not age-appropriate
2/ At this age, children do not yet show reliable gender labelling
3/ At this age, children do not yet show reliable gender stability
4/ At this age, no child understands gender constancy

Answer 37

2/ At this age, children do not yet show reliable gender labelling