Gender - Explanations of Gender Development Flashcards
what are the 3 stages of kohlberg’s theory of gender development?
gender labelling
gender stability
gender constancy
what is the gender labelling stage of kohlberg’s theory?
children label others as ‘boy’ or ‘girl’ but based on stereotypical appearance only
children change labels as appearance changes
by end of stage children have schemata for simple masc/fem characteristics
at what age does the gender labelling stage happen?
2-3
what is the gender stability stage of kohlberg’s theory?
children realise gender stable over time, but still think it changes over situations
by end of stage, realise gender + appearance are separate
at what age does the gender stability stage happen?
4-7
what is the gender constancy stage of kohlberg’s theory?
children realise gender constant over time and situation
show preferences for gender-appropriate behaviours and will reject gender-inappropriate behaviour
gender fixed in child’s mind
at what age does the gender constancy stage happen?
7+
what are the advantages of kohlberg’s theory of gender development?
research support - study shows more accurate labelling at 3 yrs than 2 - predicted by kohlberg
concurrent validity - Freud, Piaget
what are the disadvantages of kohlberg’s theory of gender development?
construct validity - research shows boys develop first due to SLT as male role models more socially powerful - bio determinism, nature/nurture
what is the process of internalising new ideas into a schema?
assimilation
equilibration
new situation
disequilibrium
accomodation
assimilation…etc
what is gender schema theory?
children develop gender identity through in-group and out-group schemas
how are the schemata in gender schema theory formed?
by info on cultural norms from TV, parents, school etc
how are in-group and out-group schemas developed?
cognitive processing develops bias:
maximisation of in-group positive qualities
maximisation of out-group negative qualities
this builds self-esteem and reinforces stereotypes
what are the positives of the gender schema theory?
construct validity - found that gender schemas related to memory, children more likely ro remember anything related to in-group than out-group
what are the limitations of gender schema theory?
determinist/reductionist - not all children conform to gender stereotypes
what are the 2 main concepts used in Freud’s theories?
internalisation
identification
what is internalisation?
accepting other’s beliefs because they resonate with yours
what is identification?
complying to gain access to a group, then slowly accepting it over time
by what process did Freud say boys developed their gender identity?
the oedipus complex
describe what occurs in the oedipus complex
boys start to desire their mother and sees father as a threat
boy hates his father and fears revenge if he found out (castration anxiety)
he imitates his fathers behaviours to impress his mother, leading to him identifying with male behaviours
conflict is resolved when he no longer feels competition and the superego develops
by what process did Freud say girls developed their gender identity?
the electra complex
describe what occurs in the electra complex
girl attracted to her mother but confused when she discovers her mother has no penis
girl develops penis envy, assuming she doesn’t have one because her mother castrated her
girls attracted to father instead but fails to identify due to gender differences
penis envy is replaced with the desire for a baby so then identifies with mother
what did Freud suggest would happen to boys who grew up without a father figure?
they may internalise feminine behaviours and become homosexual and promiscuous because they believe women are unnatianable
why does Freud say girls identify with their mother?
as a compromise or last resort because they realise that they lack what it takes to be a man
what did Freud say was caused by women settling for femininity?
anxiety and immorality
what are the advantages of Freud’s psychodynamic theory of gender development?
concurrent validity with Kohlberg and the Little Hans case study
what are the disadvantages of Freud’s psychodynamic theory of gender development?
beta bias for gender and culture
Kohlberg suggested children are aware of the opposite sex’s bodies ate different ages
determinist - not all children with single parents are promiscuous or homosexual
what are the key components in bandura’s theory of gender development through social learning theory?
indirect reinforcement
gender maintenance
direct tuition
self-direction
what is indirect reinforcement?
when a behaviour is vicariously reinforced through watching the consequences of others carrying out the behaviour
however children are more likely to repeat behaviours of role models they identify more with, so they learn behaviours from the same sex better
how is gender maintained in social learning theory?
gender-related behaviours of the child are directly reinforced, while behaviours from the opposite sex is punished
what is direct tuition in the development of gender in social learning theory?
explicit instructions on gender-appropriate behaviours
when does direct tuition begin in the development of gender?
when the child acquires linguistic skills
what is self-direction in social learning theory?
once children have internalised gender-appropriate behaviours, they are not dependant on external rewards/punishments
what are the advantages of social learning theory as an explanation of gender development?
evidence - experiment similar to bandura’s og study supports as children imitated behaviours from same-sex role models
what are the disadvantages of social learning theory as an explanation of gender development?
direct tuition more important than modelling - research shows children will listen to instructions on whether a toy is for girls or boys independent of role models
ignores biological explanations - environmental reductionism - testosterone can drive more ‘masculine’ behaviour
what are sex-role stereotypes?
socially and/or culturally defined sets of expectations that we have about the behaviour of each sex
how are sex-role stereotypes learnt?
both implicitly (internalisation-schema building) and explicitly (modelling-SLT)
what is androgyny?
the idea that one person can display behaviour of both sexes
what did Bem say can cause lower self worth?
reinforcement of fixed gender stereotypes
what type of harm did Bem say that stereotypes can cause?
psychological and social harm
what research did bem do into androgyny?
she created the bem sex role inventory
what is the bem sex role inventory?
a list containing:
20 masc items
20 fem items
20 neutral items
what was the procedure of bems sex role inventory research?
participants rated how likely they were to carry out each of the items in the inventory
scores were calculated based off of this to determine how masculine, feminine or androgynous they were
what were bem’s findings from the sex role inventory?
most people scored androgynous
what were the advantages of bems sex role inventory?
reliable - 1000s of participants
research support for link between mental health and androgyny - androgyny linked with lower levels of depression
applications for parental advice
what were the disadvantages of bems sex role inventory?
internally invalid - measures self esteem more than gender as lots socially desirable
lacks temporal validity - meaning of gender changes over time
parental advice applications may be unethical - cultural differences
low construct validity - had to add 4th category after for low masc and low fem
what is gender schema theory?
the theory that everyone acts according to their dominant schema for a given situation
that these schemas are heavily influenced by gender
can get masc schemas, fem schemas or androgynous schemas
what gene on the Y chromosome causes male development?
SRY gene
when does the SRY gene start to affect sex development?
in the fetal stage
how does the SRY gene affect sex?
creates “sex determining region Y protein”
transcription factor that binds to DNA to control other genes
which hormone is produced in both sexes in the adrenal gland during development?
lutropin
what is the function of lutropin in males?
leydig cells in testes respond to it by producing testosterone
testosterone then drives further male development
what chromosomes do people with Klinefelter’s syndrome have?
XXY
which sex are people with Klinefelter’s syndrome born with?
male - born with penis and develops male traits
what are the physical effects of Klinefelter’s syndrome?
usually infertile
feminized masculine characteristics (slim jaw, less facial hair, sometimes breast tissue)
lack muscular definition
how common is Klinefelter’s syndrome?
1 in 10,000 males
what chromosomes do people with Turner’s syndrome have?
XO
the O is either a damaged X chromosome or a missing chromosome
what sex are people with Turner’s syndrome born as?
female:
born with vagina and womb but underdeveloped ovaries
what are the effects of Turner’s syndrome?
no menstration so infertile
physically short
can have webbed neck, narrow hips, chronic skin legions and cardiac issues
how common is Turner’s syndrome?
1 in 2,000
what are three hormones that can drive sex development?
oestrogen
testosterone
oxytocin
what can occur in fetuses that are insensitive to testosterone?
they are born as intersex - no formation of male genitalia
how are fetuses that are insensitive to testosterone raised?
most raised as girls as no penis/testicals visible
some identified as XY and raised male
