gender bias controversy Flashcards
introduction
Sexism in psychology refers to the differential treatment of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences. This bias can occur in research methods (e.g., biased sampling) or in theories that favour one gender over another. Gender bias typically disadvantages women and is often referred to as androcentrism. Bias can be alpha bias (exaggerating gender differences) or beta bias (minimising differences and assuming male findings apply to all). Despite progress, psychology still reflects historical androcentric norms, as seen in the underrepresentation of female researchers and the heterosexist focus on heterosexual relationships. While psychology has made efforts to reduce sexism, it remains an issue in research, theory, and application, illustrating that gender bias is deeply embedded in the field.
para 1
One way sexism is presented in psychology is through gender bias in theories. Alpha bias assumes fundamental gender differences. Freud’s psychosexual development theory is an example, as he argued that women are morally inferior due to a weaker superego, which develops through the Oedipus complex, a process Josselson claimed women cannot fully experience. This androcentric assumption reinforced sexist stereotypes about female inferiority. In contrast, beta bias minimises gender differences, assuming male research applies universally. Many studies, such as Asch’s conformity experiment, used only male participants, yet findings were generalised to both sexes. This presents a male standard as “normal,” neglecting potential female differences. However, some argue that beta bias has positive aspects, as it promotes gender equality by assuming men and women are the same in cognitive and social processes. Nonetheless, failing to acknowledge biological and social differences can lead to misrepresentation in research, particularly in areas such as aggression or emotional expression.
para 2
Sexism in psychology also extends to heterosexism, as research historically focused on heterosexual relationships, ignoring non-heterosexual identities. Many theories of mate selection, such as Buss’ (1989) evolutionary explanation of attraction, assume heterosexual norms. Buss found men prefer younger women (due to fertility) and women prefer older men (due to resources), reinforcing traditional gender roles. However, these findings may not apply to homosexual relationships, highlighting heteronormative bias. Some research suggests minimal differences between heterosexual and homosexual relationships. Kurdek & Schmitt (1986) found similar levels of love and liking across heterosexual and homosexual couples, challenging the assumption that same-sex relationships function differently. However, studies comparing heterosexual marriage with cohabiting homosexual couples may introduce alpha bias, as relationship structures differ. While psychology has progressed in acknowledging LGBTQ+ identities, historical biases remain. The DSM classified homosexuality as a mental disorder until 1973, reflecting deeply ingrained heterosexism. Although modern psychology is more inclusive, heterosexuality remains the default in many relationship studies, perpetuating bias in psychological research.
para 3
Historically, psychology was dominated by male researchers, shaping the questions asked and the methods used. Early psychology assumed a male standard of normality, meaning female experiences were often misinterpreted or ignored. For example, Smith & Lloyd (1978) found that mothers reinforced gender stereotypes by encouraging gender-typical playing (e.g., dolls for girls, trucks for boys), demonstrating how socialisation shapes psychological development. Moss-Racusin et al. (2012) conducted an experiment where identical job applications were submitted under male and female names. “Jennifer” was rated as less competent than “John”, despite identical qualifications. This reflects the glass ceiling in psychology, where women struggle to reach senior research positions, potentially explaining their underrepresentation. However, some argue that psychology has evolved significantly from its androcentric past. For example, feminist psychology emerged to challenge bias, aiming to broaden research focus and critique sexist theories. While progress has been made, gender bias remains embedded in the field, showing that psychology still struggles with sexism despite improvements.
para 4
Another key issue is the historical invisibility of female contributions in psychology. Scarborough & Furumoto (1987) argued that the history of psychology is “the history of male psychology,” as female researchers were often overlooked. Many women were denied academic opportunities or had their work credited to male colleagues. For example, Harry Harlow’s maternal deprivation research was heavily influenced by his wife’s contributions, yet she received little recognition. Additionally, psychological subfields associated with women (e.g., developmental and counselling psychology) are often viewed as less scientific than male-dominated fields like cognitive psychology. This reflects broader societal trends where female-dominated professions are devalued. Lerner (1979) argued that feminist psychologists must “rediscover” lost female contributions and reconstruct psychology from a female perspective. Despite improvements, female researchers remain underrepresented in top psychology positions, suggesting that the invisibility of women in psychology is still an issue today.
conclusion
While psychology has taken steps to reduce sexism, it remains a persistent issue. Gender bias continues in theories (e.g., Freud’s moral inferiority argument), research design (androcentric studies), and professional opportunities (underrepresentation of female psychologists). Additionally, heterosexism still shapes research on relationships and sexuality. However, psychology has evolved, with feminist psychology challenging bias and greater efforts made toward inclusivity. Overall, while progress has been made, sexism remains embedded in psychology, supporting the view that, although the issue has improved, it still exists today.
