component 2 Flashcards
1
Q
kohlbergs methodology and procedure
A
75 american boys aged 10-16 and again between 22&28
a longitudinal study using interviews, reassessed every 3 years over a 12 year period
qualitative data collected
cross-cultural comparison: UK, Canada, turkey, Mexico, Taiwan
open ended questions in the form of a semi structured interview
should Heinz steal the drug? why and why not
2
Q
kohlbergs findings
A
moral development can be split into three levels: preconventional, conventional and post conventional
each of these stages can be split into two substages, giving a total of 6 stages:
1. punishment and obedience orientation
2. instrumental-relativist orientation
3. good boy- good girl orientation
4. law and order orientation
5. social contract orientation
6. universal principles orientation
3
Q
limitations of kohlbergs methodology
A
gave the boys hypothetical moral dilemmas, so lacks ecological validity
potential social desirability bias
4
Q
kohlbergs conclusions
A
each stage of moral development comes one at a time and always in the same order
differences in speed of progression, perhaps due to external social factors. middle class and working class children move faster and further
this six stage theory of moral dvelopment isnt significantly impacted by widely ranging social, cultural and religious conditions, the only thing affected is the rate at which individuals progress through the sequence
5
Q
milgram methodology and procedure
A
40 male self-selected volunteers aged between 20 and 50 including a variety of occupations such as factory workers, high school teachers, and businessmen
these people were also of different educational levels such as someone who hadnt finished elementary and someone who had professional degree
they were paid $4.50 regardless of whether they quit the study or not
there were 2 confederates: an experimenter and the learner
the participants drew lots with the confederate and always ended up as the teacher
he was told that he must administer electric shocks (fake) per wrong answer
maximum voltage of 450
6
Q
milgram aims
A
testing the ‘germans are different’ hypothesis which suggested that the holocaust couldnt happen anywhere else in the world because germans are more likely to commit such activities.
wanted to discover whether ordinary people will obey legitimate authority even if it means they’re required to injure another person
7
Q
milgram findings
A
before the study, milgram aksed psychology students how far they thought the participants would go. they estimated 4% would go to the maximum level
the main finding is that 65% of the participants continued to maximum level. far beyond what was marked as dangerous
only 5 participants (12.5%) stopped at 300 volts when the learner first objected
100% of participants went up to 300 volts
8
Q
milgram conclusions
A
ordinary people are astonishingly obedient to authority when asked to behave in an inhumane manner. this suggests that it is not evil people who commit evil crimes, but just ordinary people obeying orders.
in other words, crimes against humanity may be the outcome of situational rather than dispositional factors
Pascal Gino found himself thinking “good god hes dead” whilst others were sweating, trembling and stuttering.
9
Q
independent groups design
A
2 separate groups, takes part in one condition
ideal for bigger groups
randomly allocated to the conditions
10
Q
advantages of independent groups design
A
avoids order effects
less demand characteristics
11
Q
disadvantages of independent groups design
A
more participants are needed for it than repeated measures design
differences between ppts in the groups may affect results
12
Q
repeated measures design
A
one group of participants, take part in both conditions of the experiment
should be used when theres only a small number of participants
13
Q
advantages of repeated measures design
A
avoids problem of participant variables
fewer people are needed
cheap and quick
14
Q
disadvantages of repeated measures design
A
order effects are more likely to occur
demand characteristics more likely
15
Q
matched pairs design
A
participants are matched in each condition for characteristics that may have an effect on their performance
lots of time needed
identical twins are useful
16
Q
advantages of matched pairs design
A
reduces participants variables
avoids order effects
17
Q
disadvantages of matched pairs design
A
very time consuming to find closely matched pairs
requires more particpants
18
Q
field experiments
A
where an experiment takes place in the relevant field of research, natural, iv is still manipulated
19
Q
advantages of field experiments
A
high ecological validity, behaviour more likely to reflect real life
less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results as participants may not know they’re being studied
20
Q
disadvantages of field experiments
A
less control over extraneous variables
hard to replicate
likely to cause psychological harm
21
Q
lab research
A
a room equipped to allow scientific research to take place, where extraneous variables can be controlled, the IV is also manipulated
22
Q
advantages of lab research
A
easier to replicate as standardised procedure is used
allows precise control of extraneous variables
allows cause and effect relationship to be established
23
Q
disadvantages of lab research
A
artificial setting may cause unnatural behaviour that doesnt reflect real life, low ecological validity
hard to generalise
demand characteristics may bias results
24
Q
natural and quasi experiments
A
an “almost” experiment where theres an iv and a dv but the iv isnt manipulated by the researcher
25
advantages of quasi experiments
behaviour more likely to reflect real life and less likely for demand characteristics to affect the results as participants may not know they’re being studied
26
disadvantages of quasi experiments
expensive and time consuming
no control over extraneous variables
27
online studies
more recent, gives the researcher more sampling options. mostly questionnaires but can be experimental
28
advantages of online studies
access to large group of participants, diverse sample, easy to generalise and less culturally biased. cost effective too
29
disadvantages of online studies
people often lie, social desirability bias
ethical issues such as consent and risk of harm
30
process of peer review
1. researcher submits article
2. article assessed by the editor of a journal
3. if accepted, the article is sent to reviewers
4. reviewers kept anonymous from author
5. reviewers submit comments to editor
6. editor may reject the article or return it to the author to make revisions
7. revised article is re-submitted to editor to publish
31
advantages of observations
can capture spontaneous and natural behaviour
non-participant observers are likely to be more objective
participant observers are more likely to get special insights
32
disadvantages of observations
issue of observer bias, reduces validity
cant ask people how they feel
participant observations can lead to social desirability bias
ethical issues can arise due to lack of consent
time sampling has issues because behaviours might not occur in the time sampled
33
advantages of correlations
allows psychologists to identify relationships between things, knowing variables are relating can lead to useful applications in everyday life
allows researchers to investigate topics that would not be available otherwise due to it being unethical
little manipulation of behaviour is required, high ecological validity
34
disadvantages of correlations
doesnt show which variable is the cause and which is affected by it, psychologists try to isolate causes of behaviour
- allows the relationship to be explained by a third intervening variable, which is open to misinterpretation
correlations may lack internal/external validity, lacks generalisability
35
internal reliability
refers to the consistency of a measure within itself
36
external validity
whteher the study reflects real life and can apply in different places, different times or different people e.g. population validity
37
inter-rater reliability
test of reliability for observers/interviewers
is measured by correlating the observations of two more observers and inter rater reliability is high when two or more researchers produce consistent results by using a standardised procedure
38
test-retest reliability
a test of external reliability
involves testing and retesting the same participants over time, with the same test, and comparing their scores. if the scores are the same the test has external reliability.
can identify individual items that generate inconsistent results or other factors that cause variation
39
mri scans
measures which part of the brain are using energy most quickly, by measuring blood flow in the brain using radio waves and a magnetic field. radio waves excite atoms and molecules in their brain and the magnets detect these changes
computer produces 3D image
40
strengths of mri
pictures from different angles, can detect very small tumours, safe and painless, detailed, can be used more than once
41
limitations of mri
doesnt show brain function, noisy, claustrophobic, expensive
42
EEG scans
measures electrical activity in the brain, electrodes are placed on scalp which detects small changes in the electrical activity in their brain and is recorded by a pen moving on paper, used to study sleep
43
strengths of EEG
non invasive, doesnt alter brain activity, ecologically valid. useful in detecting tumours and epilepsy
44
limitations of EEG
doesnt show structure, indirect measure, the bone weakens the electrical signal
45
chi squared
independent groups, at least ordinal and nominal data, predicting a difference
46
mann whitney u
independent groups, testing a difference and at leats ordinal data
47
spearmans rank
at least ordinal, predicting relationship between two co variables, at least ordinal
48
wilcoxon
repeated measures or matched pairs, at least ordinal, hypothesis is predicting a difference
49
operationalised IV and DV for quasi experiment on sleep and age
IV: age measured in years
DV: sleep quality (as measured on the PSQI scale)
50
operationalised alternative hypothesis for quasi experiment on sleep and age
As age increases (measured in years), the quality of sleep decreases (as measured by the PSQI)
51
is our hypothesis directional or non directional for the quasi experiment on sleep and age
directional one tailed
52
why did we choose a directional hypothesis for our quasi experiment on sleep and age
previous research suggests that the older you become in years, the worse your sleep quality gets. for example, Gadie et al (2017) found that sleep quality generally decreases across the lifespan. mainly sleep efficiency
53
null hypotehsis for quasi experiment on sleep and age
there will be no significant difference between age in years and quality of sleep, as measured by the PSQI
54
extraneous variables that we considered in our quasi experiment
research settings. ppts completed the experiment in all different settings, for example some did it in classrooms and others did it in their kitchen at home which may have an impact on their concentration and score due to any potential distractions
55
how did we deal with extraneous variables in our quasi experiment
stated on our standardised instructions that ppts must take the test in a quiet, distraction free zone so everyone will be completing the test under the same conditions ensuring that nobody is distracted, increasing the validity of our findings. in our research, everyone completed it in quiet rooms, for example a silent classroom.
56
sampling method of our quasi experiment
opportunity sampling
57
why did we choose opportunity sampling for quasi experiment and stroop test
quicker and more convenient compared to other techniques. as students, other teenagers and our parents are readily available to us and opportunity sampling savs us time and money which we dont have due to limited funding and the fact that we take other subjects
58
two advantages of opportunity sampling in our quasi experiment and stroop test
time effective. we only have a certain number of hours of psychology lessons per week so we dont have much time to complete our research. this means that it is important that we choose a sampling method that saves us as much time as possible so we dont need to create a strata or sampling frame so we can fully complete the experiemnt. as a result, the investigation is completed quicker.
cheap to carry out. students in a school, limited funding and limited budget so cant carry out expensive methods. no costs within finding ppts. saves us money.
59
main characteristics of sampling group quasi experiment on sleep and age
40 ppts, 20 adolescents and 20 were over 35
both male and female ppts
60
disadvantages of opportunity sampling in quasi experiment on sleep and age and stroop test
unrepresentative (homogenous). as students, the majority of our ppts are a similar age and our cohort are predominately white and blonde so they also share very similar characteristics. weakness bc it means results cant be generalised resulting in a low population validity
61
what experimental design did we use in our quasi experiment on sleep and age
independent groups design
62
why did we use independent groups design in our quasi experiment on sleep and age
wanted to test a difference between two different groups (under 18's and over 35's)
repeated measures would have taken too long due to needing to retest after a certain period of time and as psych students we have a limited amount of time. matched pairs also innappropriate as it would take too long to find match characteristics between ppts.
63
procedure of our quasi experiment on sleep and age
1. first, we used opportunity sampling to gather our ppts
2. we handed them the consent form and standardised instructions so we could gain informed consent and so they would understand what they needed to do. once they had signed, we handed them the PSQI sheet
3. we gave them 10 minutes to complete the PSQI (used a timer), ensuring they were situated in a distraction free zone
4. after completing the PSQI, we gave them the debrief to ensure full understanding of the research
5. finally, we gathered all of the results and worked together to calculate the scores and input them.
64
what graphical representation did we use for our sleep and age test and why
bar chart, because it shows non continuous data and is easy to compare between PSQI scores of both groups
65
strengths of quasi experiments
Can be used when there are practical or ethical reasons why participants can’t be randomised.
High ecological validity due to lack of involvement of researcher, variables are naturally occurring so findings can be easily generalised to other real life settings resulting in high external validity.
66
weaknesses of quasi experiments
The lack of control over the IV means that we can not say for certain that any change in DV was caused by the DV.
In an experiment with independent groups design participants are randomly allocated to conditions. This is not possible in quasi-experiments. This means that there may be biases in the different groups.
The sample studied may have unique characteristics. This means that the findings can’t be generalised.(low population validity).
67
what makes a positive skew
curve to the right, mode < median < mean
68
what makes a negative skew
curve to the left, mean < median < mode
69
what was our level of data for our sleep and age test and why
ordinal as our stroop test scores can be put into order and the intervals arent equal
70
what inferential statistic did we use for our sleep and age test and why
mann whitney U, our research was a test of difference (age and sleep quality as age increases), ordinal data (PSQI score is ordinal) and independent groups design (our independent groups are the two ages under 18 and over 35)
71
findings of our quasi experiment on sleep and age
over 35's had worse sleep quality, as a higher score (closer to 21) indicated worse sleep. adolescents had an average PSQI score of 6 compared to the over 35's who had an average score of 7.6.
mode of adolescents was 4, mode for adults was 7.
as the calculated value of U (163) is higher than the critical value (168) the null hypothesis can be acepted and the experimental hypothesis can be rejected. it can be reported that there is not a significant difference between age and sleep quality.
72
what methods of assessing reliability can we use for our sleep and age
inter rater reliability, test retest reliability
73
how can we implement test retest reliability into our sleep and age
getting the same participants to complete the PSQI test again but a month later to see if their scores remain the same or similar.
74
split half reliability
involves splitting a ppts test scores in half to see if they got the same/similar scores on both halves. if so, internal reliability is high.
75
CT scans
A series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. AKA cat scan
76
strength of CT scans
It gives detail that was not there before scanning - such as not being affected by overlap of organs in the body, and being able to produce three-dimensional imaging, including from different angles. So for evidence of damage to the brain, it is very useful.
A CT scan is non-invasive and painless. However, if a dye like iodine is used it is invasive to an extent.
77
weakness of CT scans
MRI scanning can be better for certain issues. For example, when seeing what is causing headaches it is better to use a MRI scan, but if you were looking for skull fractures a CT scan is better.
The radiation from the x-ray should be kept to a minimum so repeated use of CT scanning is not advised. This limits its effectiveness and also is an ethical issue.
78
PET scans
A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
79
strengths of PET scans
PET scans have high construct validity because they do seem to measure what they claim to measure. Furthermore, it has high concurrent validity as their findings have been found to match other findings, for example, areas for speech found by examining the brains of people with speech problems when they died was the same area of activity (Broca's area) when scanned.
PET scans are reliable because they can be repeated and the same results found. For example, the same areas of the brain are consistently active for different activities, such as Broca's area for speech.
80
weaknesses of PET scans
the injection of a radioactive tracer is an invasive procedure which can be distressing. Furthermore, the scan itself can be claustrophobic and may cause some people to panic.
It is hard to pinpoint exact areas of the brain so even if PET scans are clear; they are still fairly broad in their imaging.
81
issues of reliability in our sleep and age test
1. should have given a specific timeframe, all ppts wouldve had a different timeframe causing inconsistency, lacking internal reliability
2. lack of test retest reliability. we only tested our ppts once
82
internal validity
findings are accurate and the effects on the DV are caused by the IV. therefore, the study measures what it intends to measure
83
external reliability
whether the study paints a true picture of real life behaviours e.g. if the tasks have mundane realism. and whether the findings would apply to different places, different times or different people (population validity)
84
what issues of validity do we have in our sleep and age research
demand characteristics, as due to the questions aksed our ppts couldve quite easily figured out the aims of our research leading to answers not being 100% truthful if they wanted to give us answers that fits with what we are looking for
researcher bias, we may ahve picked participants that we knew would haev given us results that we were looking for
85
how did we ensure that our sleep and age research was valid
we controlled any extraneous variables (e.g. noise by ensuring we were in a quiet environment), had a range of ages, ensured our sample was representative of the target population.
86
two ways we could have improved our sleep and age test research
1. changes to our sample and sampling method. we couldve also used students from various different classes not just psychology
2. couldve completed a pilot study. this would mean that we could spot any isues with the study before completing it so we can help the true reserach run more smoothly.
87
what were the operationalised co variables we were testing in the stroop test
age in years, time taken to complete the stroop test 1+2 in mins/sec
88
operationalised alternative hypothesis for stroop test
there will be a positive correlation between age of particpants in years and stroop scores in seconds, as the age of partcipants (years) increases the difference in time taken to complete the stroop test also increases (seconds)
89
is our alternative hypothesis for stroop test directional or non directional and why
directional because previous research (Wolf 2013) found a positive correlation between stroop interference and age.
90
null hypothesis for stroop test
there will be no correlation between the age of participants (years) and the time taken to complete the stroop test (seconds)
91
main characteristics of stroop test sample
number: 40
ages: 16-87
92
procedure of stroop
1. access and set up stroop test electronically, ready for investiagtion
2. settle the partcipant into the research setting, must be quiet, private and free of any distractions
3. ask the participant to read the consent form and if they’re happy to continue, instruct them to sign the correct areas on the form
4. read out the standardised procedure to the ppts
5. ppts will complete stroop test
6. collect data
7. ask them to read the debrief provided, ensuring that they understand their right to withdraw and where to go for advice if they feel that the research has caused them any harm
93
what graphical representation will we use for our stroop test and why
scatter graph as we are looking whether or not there is a relationship or correlation between our two co variables, which a scatter graph shows unlike other graphs
94
what inferential statistic will we use for our stroop test and why
spearman's Rho because it predicts a correlation, as age increases stroop completion increases. there are two co-variables, the stroop test inteferance and age. its also at least ordinal data, and the variable which is ordinal is the difference in stroop test conditions.
95
how can we ensure inter rater reliability in our stroop test
made sure all ppts used the exact same stroop test and had the exact same standardised procedure that they all followed
96
how can we ensure test retest reliability in our stroop test
the same participants can complete the same test after a considerable amount of time e.g. three months, and we can compare them with previous results
97
2 issues with reliability in our stroop test
different researchers, couldve given ppts slightly different instructions. could also give diff stroop tests too. for example, the stroop test on one website couldve given 12 words but the stroop test on another couldve given 15 words to read. we overcome this by using a standardised procedure with an exact link
ppts couldve been tested at different time periods. an issue bc it could lead to extraneous variables that may mean the experiment is not operationalised, leading to lower external reliability. for example, if the test is completed at a busy point in the day it could lead to more distractions therefore a longer time taken to complete the test whereas our participants from school had completed it in a quiet classroom enviornment with no distractions.
98
issues of validity with stroop test
emand characteristics. ppts may have figured out the aims either from our standardised instructions or consent form naturally before we started and then changed their behaviours to fit. or, through teh screw you effect.
researcher bias, our own personal tests or instructions couldve been used, potentially to help the ppt. for example, an elderly ppt may have needed help and asked for another chance, and the researcher couldve felt empathy for them and let them redo it. we overcame this by having a set of standardised procedures
99
overcoming ethical issues w stroop test
informed consent- consent form must be read and signed before, and if the participant was under 16 a gatekeeper must have filled out the form.
right to withdraw- ppts got told at the start that they have the right to withdsraw at any point.
100
ways to improve our stroop test research
1. changing the characteristics of our samples- greater range and variety of ages. using more intermediate values of age than in our experiment (as ours was mostly 17 year olds) can allow for a wider spread of data, being more precise and representative of the population giving our research a higher population validity
2. change sampling method. for example, could make the change from opportunity to stratified which would allow greater representativeness as it ensures each age and subgroup (e.g. gender) within the population recieves proper representation within the sample, allowing for more precision.
101
strengths of qualitative data
Subject materials can be evaluated with greater detail.
Qualitative research data is based on human experiences and observations.
Research frameworks can be fluid and based on incoming or available data.
Data complexities can be incorporated into generated conclusions.
more in depth.
Attitude explanations become possible with qualitative research.
102
weakness of qualitative data
The quality of the data gathered in qualitative research is highly subjective.
Data rigidity is more difficult to assess and demonstrate.
Mining data gathered by qualitative research can be time consuming.
can be difficult to present findings.
Researcher influence can have a negative effect on the collected data.
Replicating results can be very difficult with qualitative research.
103
strength of unstructured interviews
Rapport and sensitivity - informality allows interviewer to gain rapport so more likely to open up.
checking understanding - easier for interviewer and interviewee to check each others meanings.
flexibility means researcher can adapt mid interview if new interesting topics appear.
interviewee can answer in own words.
104
weakness of unstructured interviews
practical Problems, takes longer, smaller sample sizes.
Reliability - not reliable as not standardized
Ethical Issues, issues of private matters, and sensitive topics being pressed upon.
105
Advantages of questionnaires
Require short answers so easy to quantify and identify patterns.
Relatively quick and cheap.
Large sample can be studied in short period of time.
Reliable
Anonymous - more honesty
Not limited to geographical areas (online)
Longitudinal studies easy to carry out.
106
disadvantages of questionnaires
Answer is limited.
Lack validity.
Respondents may not understand questions/ questions may be interpreted and treated differently by different people.
Poor response rate - not generalisable (postal)
Pilot study needed.
107
advantages of structured interviews
If respondent is unsure of question, they can ask about it.
Standardised - quantifiable
Quicker than other interview methods
Presence of researcher improves response rates.
Reliable.
108
Semi-structured interviews
Framework of questions made
Not as flexible as unstructured interviews but still room for some discussion
109
Advantages of semi-structured interviews
Reliable and quantifiable thus comparable
Opportunity for elaboration increasing validity
Interviewer can ask for more in depth answers
Questions can be explained
110
Advantages of focus groups
Views of more than one person given
More informative and revealing.
Useful when studying groups
Quick - more than one respondent at a time (cheaper0
Group members can lead discussion introducing ideas not thought about by researcher
111
disadvantage of focus group
Group moderator needs to be skilled (cost of training or hiring)
Uncomfortable setting for some
Results unlikely to be representative
Each group is unique so unreliable results
Dominant group member may influence others
Difficult to analyse
112
advantage of covert participant observation
Enables researcher to observe hard to reach groups
Detailed qualitative data collected
Valid
113
disadvantage of covert participant observation
Researcher has to rely on memory
Gaining access is difficult and trust of gatekeeper is needed to be gained
Researcher may be put at risk
Issues of consent and deception
Researcher must decide what to do if illegal or immoral activities occur
Danger of 'going native' - losing objectivity and identifying with group
114
advantages of overt participant observation
Ethical issues of consent and deception avoided
Questions can be asked openly without researcher being put at risk
Note taking much easier - data is more accurate
115
disadvantages of covert participant observation
Hawthorne Effect- the alteration of behaviour by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed.
Question of how far researcher should become involved
Risk of 'going native'
