component 3 Flashcards
stress
psychological and physical strain or tension generated by events or experiences that are difficult to manage or endure
yerkes dodson law
in order to gain the best performance, you need an optimum amount of stress.
however, too much or not enough stress leads to weak performance
stress as a physical response
Selye (1936) conducted research on rats and described a general phsyical response which activates the nervous system to release hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline
stress as a psychological response
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed a transactional model of stress. stress is seen as an interaction between an individual and the enviroment.
when a person percieves a stressor, they make a judgement on whether they can cope
primary appraisal (Lazarus and Folkman 1984)
considers whether the threat is harmful or challenging
secondary appraisal (Lazarus and Folkman 1984)
considers whether there is resources to deal with it
acute stress
response to an immediate stressor e.g. exams
episodic acute stress
repeated instances of short term stress, can become part of personality or lifestyle
chronic stress
persists over a long period of time, can see no escape e.g poverty or relationship problems
Farr and Gibbons (1990)
7 types of crime: property predatory, property fraudulent, transactional vice, interpersonal violence, interpersonal sexual violence, order disruption, folk/mundane crimes
Raine (1993) concordance rates
52% for MZ twins and 21% for DZ twins
Brunner et al (1993)
DNA analysis of 28 male members of a Dutch family who had violent behaviour and found the men shared a gene that led to low MAOA
SAM pathway
- threat (ongoing evaluation)
- hypothalamus activated
- sympathetic branches of ANS activated
- adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline
- when threat is gone, parasympathetic branch of NS dampens response
SAM pathway
- threat (ongoing evaluation)
- hypothalamus activated
- sympathetic branches of ANS activated
- adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline
- when threat is gone, parasympathetic branch of NS dampens response
strengths of biological explanation of stress
Leor et al (1996)- more deaths caused by cardiovascular problems on the day of the northridge california earthquake. realistic study, better than conducting acute stressor in a lab so more ecologically valid
adrenaline released during acute stressors can have negative effects on the heart. sudden release of adrenaline leads to bottom part of the heart to be paralysed so the top half has to work harder. this demonstrates acute effects on the body after stress which links together adrenaline and death
weaknesses of biological explanation of stress
dimsdale (2008): other factors may be involved in the causes of cardiovascular problems as other factors may be involved too —> can’t isolate stress alone.
taylor et al (2000) women use tend and befriend rather than fight or flight. during EEA, adaptive for women to deal with stress by nurturing their young and creating social networks and fight and flight puts risk to their young. oxytocin is higher in women. weakness because it’s not a single response, there is a gender difference
sutherland (1949)
boys socialised to be risk takers, tough whereas girls are socialised to be conforming, talk about feelings and supervised and controlled
cohen (1955)
social learning theory harder for boys because girls have easy access to mothers, whereas fathers have traditionally been elusive role models as theyre less frequently available for their sons
boys engage in “compensentory compulsory masuclinity” through aggression and antisocial behaviour which causes delinquency, as boys rebel against socialisation from mothers
weaknesses of social psychological explanation of criminal behaviour: gender socialisation
- chivalry hypothesis- more women commmit crimes than official statistics suggest. police, magistrates, judges tend to be men and men are socialised to be more chivalrous. pollak- (1950) men in justice system have prpotective attitude towards women. suggests that its not only gender of criminal, also gender of criminal justice system –> lacks validity
- gender difference could be explained through biology rather than social factors. testosterone secreted in much higher levels in men. dabbs et al (1987) —> 9/10 inmates with lowest testosterone concentrationshad committed non violent crimes, 10/11 inmates with high t conc had committed violent crimes. testosterone sugg to increase aggression. female oestridol promotes empathy which is lacked in criminals. weakness because reductionist explanation.
application of gender socialisation
man up project, males could socialise differently to reduce crim b ehaviour. e.g could be exposed to more feminine strategies of conflict management. positive effect on recidivism.
differential association theory
people vary in the frequency with which they associate with others who have more or less favourable attitudes towards crime. these attitudes will influence their own attitudes and behaviour. proposed by sutherland.
a child learns attitudes to crime, e.g. whether it is desireable or not. also learns methods for committing crimes.
strengths of differential association theory
- it changed peoples views of criminal behaviour. marked a shift from blaming the individual to including social factors. theory stated that criminal behaviour didnt need to be explained in terms of criminal activity, but in terms of social experiences. in terms of applications, we can attempt to change the learning environments.
- criminality appears to run in famillies. osborn and west (1979) found that when a father was criminal, 40% of sons had also committed a crime by the age of 18 compared to 13% of non criminal fathers.
SEEW strength of role of adrenaline and acute stress
S- evidence has high ecological validity
E- Leor et al (1996) found that cardiovascular deaths increased on the day of the Northridge california earthquake
E- ecologically valid because the earthquake was a naturally occurring stressor, rather than one artificially created in a lab
W- strength because it highlights how the biological explanation of stress applies to real life explanations (creates link between adrenaline and death), making it more generalisable than laboratory studies.
SEEW weakness of adrenaline and acute stress
S- a weakness is raised by Dimsdale (2008), who argues that stress cannot be definitively identified as the sole cause of cardiovascular problems
E- other factors such as cholesterol levels or smoking could also play a significant role in cardiovascular risk
E- this means that the relationship between stress and cardiovascular issues is not clear cut, as biological stress responses might interact with other stress and lifestyle factors
W- this is a weakness because it decreases the validity of the biological explanation by suggesting that stress alone might not be sufficient to account for cardiovascular issues
SEEW strength of role of cortisol in chronic stress
S- evidence shows that cortisol released during prenatal stress has long lasting effects on a developing foetus
E- O’Connor et al found that maternal stress during pregnancy altered the HPA axis functioning of the child, while Sarkar (2007) showed that higher cortisol levels in the mothers blood correlated with poorer cognitive and behavioural development in the child
E- this means that the biological explanation effectively accounts for how cortisol, a key stress hormone, can influence long term physical and mental health
W- this is a strength because it provides evidence on the measurable effects of cortisol, supporting the biological explanations validity and real world relevance.
SEEW weakness of cortisol explanation
S- a weakness is the lack of clear cause and effect relationship between stress and cortisol release
E- when stressed, people may change their eating habits, sleep less, or consume more alcohol and caffeine, which could contribute to illness attributed to stress
E- this means that negative outcomes linked to cortisol might not be entirely due to stress but could result from confounding lifestyle factors
W- this is a weakness because it reduces the internal validity of the biological explanation by making it harder to isolate cortisols specific effects meaning it cant be used to explain stress related illnesses e.g. heart disease, type II diabetes
SEEW strength of hardiness explanation
S- a strength is its high usefulness when being applied to stress management
E- Maddi et al (1988) demonstrated the benefits of hardiness training, where participants who underwent hardiness training showed increased job satisfaction and decreased anxiety and illness compared to those who learned relaxation skills or were in the control group
E- this means that hardiness training equips individuals with strategies to view stress as something manageable, helping them to take control and remain committed and resillient during stress
W- this is a strength because it shows the effectiveness of hardiness in improving real world outcomes such as workplace productivity and mental health whilst approaching stress management.
SEEW weakness of the hardiness explanation
s: A weakness of the hardiness explanation is its reliance on self-report questionnaires, which are prone to social desirability bias.
E: Funk (1992) argued that many hardiness scales are ambiguous and inconsistently applied across studies, meaning that differences in findings may be due to the measurement tools rather than the hardiness traits themselves.
E: This means the explanation may lack validity, as it is difficult to accurately measure hardiness traits or their influence on stress outcomes. Additionally, participants may give answers they think are socially acceptable, rather than reflecting their true feelings or experiences.
w: This is a weakness because it reduces the reliability of the research underpinning the hardiness explanation and makes it harder to draw consistent conclusions about its role in stress management.
SEEW strength of type A and B personality
S: evidence linking Type A personality traits to physiological stress responses.
E: Friedman et al. (1975) participants with Type A personalities showed higher adrenaline levels and more stress in challenging situations, such as completing an impossible puzzle in a noisy environment, compared to Type B individuals.
E: Type A individuals are more prone to chronic stress-related health issues, such as cardiovascular disease, due to their constant activation of the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) pathway.
W: provides physiological evidence to support the theory, showing how personality traits directly impact stress responses and health outcomes.
SEEW weakness of type A and B
S: cultural and gender bias.
E: Helman (1987) noted that the Type A traits, such as competitiveness and being a workaholic, reflect Western cultural norms, which are not universally applicable. Additionally, the original studies focused on men, and while Baker et al. (1984) found that women also showed Type A traits, women’s stress responses often differ (e.g., “tend and befriend”).
E: the findings may not generalise to non-Western cultures or to women, whose stress responses may be shaped by different social and biological factors.
W: limits the universality of the Type A and B explanation, reducing its applicability to diverse populations and situations.
SEEW strength of life events
S: A strength of the life events explanation is the evidence linking life changes to biological susceptibility to illness.
E: Cohen et al. (1993) found that participants with higher life events scores were more likely to develop a cold after being exposed to the cold virus.
E: This suggests that the experience of significant life events can lead to biological changes that weaken the immune system.
W: This is a strength because it provides scientific, objective biological evidence, supporting the idea that stress from life events is more than just psychological and has physical health consequences.
SEEW weakness of life events
S: A weakness of the life events explanation is its reliance on self-report measures
E: ther ssrs is in the form of a questionnaire, which means that the data used to measure the relationship between life events and stress may not always be reliable as participants may forget or misremember significant life events
E: Raphael et al. (1991) found that when women were asked to recall life events over a 10-month period, only a quarter of the events they initially reported appeared on later lists. This highlights issues with memory and accuracy in recalling life changes.
W: This is a weakness because it reduces the internal validity of the research, making it harder to draw accurate conclusions about the connection between life changes and stress.
SEEW strength of daily hassles
S: the evidence showing a clear relationship between hassles and negative health outcomes.
E: Bouteyre et al. (2007) found that 41% of students transitioning from school to university experienced depressive symptoms, which were strongly correlated with daily hassles. Sher (2004) also found that daily hassles increased cortisol levels, a biological marker of chronic stress.
E: This suggests that the cumulative effect of daily hassles can significantly impact both mental health and physiological responses, demonstrating the relevance of this theory in explaining stress.
W: This is a strength because it highlights the importance of everyday experiences in contributing to stress, relatable perspective than life events, which may be less frequent.
weakness of daily hassles
self report measures used, hassles scale doesnt give individuals the option to report that a hassle has occurred but didnt bother them, may also underreport due to social desirability bias
reduces internal validity
strength of hardiness
practical applications, maddi et al (1988) benefits if hardiness training, ppts who did hardiness showed increased job satisfaction and decreased anxiety compared to those who learned relaxation skills or were in the control group. hardiness training equips individuals with strategies to view stress as something manageable, helping them take control and remain committed and resillient in face of stress. shows how hardiness can increase workplace productivity and mental health
weakness of hardiness
self report questionnaires, funk (1992) many hardiness scales are ambiguous and inconsistently applied across studies so differences in findings may be due to the measurement tools used rather than the hardiness traits themselves
so may lack validity, as its difficult to accurately measure traits. ppts may also give answers that they think are socially acceptable rather than reflecting their true feelings
harder to draw conclusions, lower population validity
strength of type A and B
evidence linking type A to psychological stress responses, Friedman et al (1975) found that ppts with type A personalities showed higher adrenaline levels and more stress in challenging situations e.g. completing an impossible puzzle in a noisy environment compared to type B individuals
suggetss that type A are more prone to stress related illnesses e.g. cardiovascular disease due to the constant activation of the SAM pathway. provides physiological evidence to support the theory, shows direct link between type A personalities and stress related illnesses
weakness of type A and B
cultural and gender bias, helman (1987) noted that type A traits e.g. competitiveness and being a workaholic reflect western cultural norms which are not universally applicable. additionally, the original studies focused on men but baker et al (1984) found that women also show type A traits but womens stress responses often differ “tend and befriend”. shows that the findings may not generalise to non western cultures or women whose stress responses may be shaped by different social and biological factors which reduces pop validity and applicability
strength of differential association theory (psychological)
ability to explain how criminal behaviour is learned through social interactions. Akers et al (1979) surveyed 2500 adolescents and found that peer influence, including differential reinforcement and imitation accounted for 68% of the variance in marijuana use and 55% alcohol use.
criminal behaviour can be attributed to social environments e.g. peers who promote offending
allows practical strategies to be made for reducing crimes through interventions targeting social influences
weakness of differential association theory
much of the supporting evidence is correlational. cox et al (2014) difficult to establish whether individuals adopt crim behaviour from their peers or whether they seek out others with similar tendencies.
theory cannot show cause and effect, so cant conclusively determine whether socialisation causes criminal behaviour or reflexts pre existing tendancies so reduces reliability of research
strength of gender socialisation
explanation of gender differences in crime rates. dabbs et al (1987) inmates with the highest testosterone levels were more likely to have committed violent crimes, whereas those with the lowest levels had committed non-violent crimes.
means that biological differences, influenced by gender socialisation, may predispose men to higher aggression levels. strength because it means that the theory is supported by biological factors too so shows nature and nurture
weaknesses of gender socialisation
lack of consistent evidence supporting the chivlary hypothesis. carlen (1997) women who adhered to traditional gender roles such as being good mothers were less likely to be imprisoned, but this was not always linked to the severity of their offences. means that the justice system may not always treat women leniently, as other factors such as class or race may influence sentencing decisions. reduces generalisability of the research
weakness of the amygdala
oversimplifies by ignoring other brain regions. raine et al (1997) while murderers had higher glucose metabolism in their amygdala, they also showed abnormally low activity in their prefrontal cortex- an area which regulates impulsive behaviours and self control.
means that aggressive criminal behaviours cannot be attributed solely to the amygdala, but its interaction with other brain reigons like the orbitofrontal cortex
shows reductionist nature of the explanation
strength of the amygdala
high predictive validity. padroni et al (2014) longitudinal study of 503 males, finding that those with smaller amygdala volumes exhibited higher levels of aggression and psychopathic traits throughout their lives and at follow up assessments
means the amygdala may be a biological indicator of an individuals likelihood to engage in criminal behaviour over time which shows evidence to support the role of biological factors in predicting criminal behaviours, allowing for early interventions
strength of inherited criminality
evidence supporting genetic link, mednick et al (1987) found that 20% of adoptees whos biological parents were criminals went on to commit crimes compared to only 15% of those adopted into criminal famillies suggesting a stronger influence of genetics
weakness of inherited criminality
inability to explain all types of crime. tilhonen et al (2015) found that individuals with a defenctive MAOA gene were 13 times more likely to engage in repeated violent behaviours but not all individuals with this gene became criminals. means that the biological explanation struggles to account for non-violent crimes and requires interaction with the environment to fully explain criminal behaviour. reductionist explanation, and limits applicibility because it doesnt account for crimes such as fraud or theft.
strength of eysenck
evidence that personality has a genetic basis. zuckerman (1967) found +0.52 correlation for neruroticism in MZ twins compared to +0.24 in DZ twins, and a +0.51 correlation for extraversion in MZ twins compared to +0.12 in DZ twins
means that personality traits linked to criminal behaviour such as neuroticism and extraversion may have a significant genetic component. supports biological aspect of eysencks theory, highlighting role of inherited personality traits in criminal behaviour
another strength of Eysenck
ability to predict delinquent behaviour, dunlop et al (2012) extraversion and psychoticism, along with lie scales, were good predictors of minor delinquent behaviour such as theft and traffic offences among students.
means that personality traits developed by Eysenck can help in less serious, rule breaking behaviour particularly in younger individuals. can prevent early delinquency
weakness of eysenck
doesnt account for environmental factors, van dam et al (2007) only a small number of offenders in juvenile detention centres exhibited all three of eysencks variables
theory may overlook importance of external influences, such as upbringing and peer relationships in shaping criminal behaviour. limits predictive validity, fails to provide a complete explanation
strength of minimalisation
evidence supporting role, kennedy and grubin (1992) found that sex offenders often downplayed their crimes, blaming the victim or denying their involement altogether. maruna and mann (2006) argued that this behaviour aligns with normal psychological processes as people externalise blame
means that distorted thinking, e.g. minimisation, may help offenders justify their actions reducing guilt. strength because it shows how cognitive processes can influence criminal behaviour and provides a focus for interventions such as CBT.
strength of hostile attribution bias
evidence supporting role. Schoenberg and gusty (2014) showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 55 violent offenders in prison and matched to “normal” controls. the offenders were more likely to interpret neutral expressions as expressions of aggression.
means that offenders with hostile attribution bias are likely to misinterpret non-aggressive cues as threatening, which could lead to impulsive or violent actions. highlights how cognitive distortions may play a key role and allowes for interventions such as anger management.
weakness of cog factors
relies heavily on kohlbergs stages of moral reasoning. krebs and denton (2005) argue that moral principles are only one key factor affecting behavuour, and they are often used to justify actions rather than guiding behaviour in the first place. additionally, his theory is gender biased focusing on male perspective and ignoring potental gender differences
means that the theory is reductionist and could oversimplify the role of moral reasoning in crim behaviour and fail to account for other influences e.g. emotions or situational factors. undermines validity
kuhlmann et al (2005)
cortisol impairs memory, in particular the retrieval of negative words. shows stress hormones do affect cognitive functions and that emotional material is especially sensistive to the memory modulating effects of stress hormones
kiecolt glaser (1984)
stress reduces immune functioning by measuring a decrease in natural killer cell activity medical students during exams.
who proposed hardy personality
kobasa
what three characteristics do poeple with the hardy personality have
committment control and challenge
committment
reflects engaged attitude towards life, individuals find meaning even in stressful situations
control
believe they can influence events rather than being passive victims of stress.
challenge
viewing stressors as opportunities for growth rather than threat
what do challenge commitment and control act as
a buffer against stress by fostering resillience helping hardy individuals adopt active coping strategies.
bartone (1999)
soldiers with high hardiness experienced fewer negative health effects, e.g. ptsd and depression, even under significant stress
kobasa et al (1986)
hardy personality more effective stress buffer than exercise or social support. suggetss the three cimponents of hardiness significantly mitigate the negative physical and emotional consequences of stress
strength of beta blockers
beta blockers are proven to help the nerves of musicians
neftel et al (1982) took a group of musicians and gave them either beta blockers or a placebo 6.5 hours before they were performing, and found that the beta blocker group had a lower heart rate and more accuracy in playing complex instruments than the placebo group. they also had reduced stage fright.
this means that beta blockers target the physiological symptoms of stress e.g. heart rate and muscle tension which allows them to perform more effectively
this is a strength because it provides evidence on the versatility of beta blockers, showing that they can be used for off label uses such as for musicians which broadens their real world applicability.
weakness of beta blockers (different types)
different types of beta blockers have different effects on stress. schweizer et al (1991) compared different beta blockers to a placebo for students takimng a maths test. and found that although all beta blockers helped reduce physical effects, there were different ratings in stress among the group. this means that beta blockers dont help to show cause and effect as they dont have a uniform effect across all types.
W- this is a weakness because it limits the reliability of beta blockers as a universal treatment for stress.
weakness of beta blockers (long term)
poor long term effectivity, beta blockers dont address the psychological and emotional side of stress e.g. irrational thoughts or situational pressures
this means that if the person is irrational or has a strong tupe A personality then this is untreated. sit may be more appropriate for long term coping
weakness because sit is needed long term to treat the cause and drug therapy is only. effective short term
strength of SIT
evidence of effectiveness in reducing anxiety and stress and increasing performance
sheehy and horan 92004) first year law students and did 4 weekly sessions of SIT for 90 minutes. ppts who had sit had lower anxiety levels. academic performance of those predicted to be in bottom 20% also had signficant improvements after sit
E- sit is useful in addressing both the emotional and cognitive aspects of stress and equips individuals with coping strategies to allow them to manage stress better.
W- strength because it demonstrates the practical, long term benefits of sit in real world contexts such as education
weakness of sit
difficulty to pinpoint which of the three components is the effective part since they overlap. Moses and Hollandsworth (1985) randomly allocated 24 dental phobics to one of 4 conditions. found that some had stage one, whereas others had stage one along with other elememts and coping skills training
this means that its hard to isolate which part of the therapy had the most signiifcant impact since iot could be the initial conceptualisation stage or skills acquisition and application.
reduces psychologists ability to improve or refine sit making the therapy potentially less efficient.
schizophrenia
a long term, major psychotic disorder that is typified by a lack of contact with reality.
roughly 220,000 diagnosed each year in england and wales , and in the UK and europe ICD-10 is used to diagnose.
schneider (1959)
positive symptoms (in addition to normal behaviours) and negative symptoms (inhibit people from ‘normal’ behaviour)
hallucinations
unreal perceptions that can present themselves in any sense, 20% have tactile hallucinations
delusions
beliefs that are unreal, common delusions include persecution (person or group want to hurt the individual) and grandiosity (special or more powerful)
disordered thinking
thoughts and discourse seem to jump from one topic to another, with no logical flow
alogia
poverty of speech, reduction in total speech produced lacking meaning
flatness of affect
shows no emotion, little to no facial expressions
avolition
individual is indifferent to their surroundings, no desire to take part in activities
diathesis stress
diathesis = biological disposition
stress = psychological stressors
a person may be able to develop schizophrenia, but it only onsets if they are stressed
dopamine hypothesis
initially proposed that too much dopamine led to schizophrenia, Griffith et al (1968) induced schizophrenic symptoms in non schizophrenic volunteers by giving them dextroamphetamine to increase dopamine levels in the brain. they then experienced an abrupt onset of paranoid delusions and were cold and detatched emotionally. later this was proven to be too simple, as giving drugs to lower dopamine levels had little to no effect on schizophrenic patients who had mainly negative symptoms.
dopamine receptors
D1-D5 then discovered, distributed across the cerebral cortex and subcortically in the limbic system.
limbic system (dopamine hypothesis)
has a variety of subcortical structures engaged in functions such as emotions, memory and arousal. nerves leave this areato other subcortical struvtures and the cerebral cortex.
mesolimbic pathway
signals are carried from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus cumbers.
too much dopamine leads to overstimulation and positive symptoms.
antipsychotics reduce this dopaminergic transmission
mesocortical pathway
signals are carried from the ventral tegmental area to the frontal lobe.
this is vital in emotional responses, motivation and cognition
Davis et al (1991) found that too little dopamine is evident in the D1 receptors of the frontal lobe of many people with negative symptoms of schizophrenia
kety et al (1988) dopamine hypothesis
14% of the biological relative of adoptees w ith schizophrenia were classified as schizophrenic themselves, whereas only 2.7% of their adoptive relatives were found to be schizophrenic
shows sz has a genetic basis however its a denmark only study and the small sample reduces reliability
torrey 2002
the ventricles of a person with schizophrenia are about 15% bigger than normal
does not prove causation, other factors may contribute
strengths of dopamine hypothesis
gottesman (1991) found that the concordance rate between MZ twins was 48% but only 17% for dizygotic twins. as MZ and DZ twins both share the same environment, the higher concordance rate in the MZ twins may be due to their shared genes.
this shows that as genetic similarity increases so did the probability of both individuals having schizophrenia- demonstrates a strong relationship between genetics and schizophrenia
weaknesses of dopamine hypothesis (not a single gene)
the Schizophrenia working group of the psychiatric genomics consortium identified over a hundred genes associated with schizophrenia. as it appears there isnt one single gene associated with achizophrenia, perhaps there is not one disorder that may be called schizophrenia.
this shows that the relationship is a complex matter and more than just a few abnormal genes. reductionism
weakness of dopamine hypothesis (not the only neurotransmitter)
dopamine is not the only neurotransmitter implicated in schizophrenia, serotonin has also been found to influence the disorder. newer a-typical antipsychotics work on some serotonin receptors such as 5HT2A. this suggests that this is not the only explanation for schizophrenia, for example negative symptoms have an overlap with depression.
weakness of dopamine hypothesis (cause and effect)
coplov and cook (2000) found when using a PET scan they were not even able to detect differences in the dopamine activity of individuals with schizophrenia and those without. may be some time before we know for certain if dopamine imbalances cause schizophrenia or if schizophrenia causes dopamine imbalances.
this suggests that there could be other factors, just a relationship
four ventricles (structural abnormalities)
left and right lateral ventricles, third ventricle is sittuated behind the left and right thalamus, fourth ventricle lies between the pons and the medulla
weinberger et al (1979)
used CAT scans and found the size of the ventricles was larger in 58 individuals with chronic schizophrenia then 56 in the control group who didnt have schizophrenia
andreasen (1988)
studied MRI scans of individuals with and without schizophrenia and found that those with schizophrenia tended to have 20-50% larger ventricles than those without the illness
cortical atrophy
this is the loss of neurons in the cerebral cortex. it can occur all over the brain making it look as though it had shrunk, or the atrophy can occur in a limited area. this damage seems to characterise the brains of 20-30% of people with chronic schizophrenia
vita et al (1988) (cortical atrophy)
used CAT scans to assess 124 individuals with schizophrenia and 45 control participants. 33% with schizophrenia showed moderate to severe atrophy.
reversed cerebral asymmetry
in most individuals without schizophrenia the left hemisphere is slightly larger than the right hemisphere. however, in some with schizophrenia the right is larger than the left. if you consider that the language function is usually in the left hemisphere, this could explain alogia which is associated with schizophrenia
strength of structural abnormalities
the findings are highly reliable, the same structural abnormalities are found time after time when studies are replicated. McCarley (1999) found that enlarged brain ventricles were the most reliable finding in research that uses brain scans
weakness of structural abnormalities (struc differences are the cause)
if the brains of schizophrenics differ to that of contriols, it may be that structural differences are the cause of the illness. however, it may be that the illness causes structural abnormalities or a combination of the two. Lyon (1981) found that as levels of antipsychotics in patients increased, the density of brain tissue decreased.
this shows that once schizophrenia has been treated it could actually be the medication that causes the abnormality.
weakness of structural abnormalities (not only linked to schizophrenia)
structural abnormalities are not only linked to schizophrenia. Roy et al (1998) found that people who were diagnosed with bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder have also been found to have enlarged ventricles. this shows that there are overlapping symptoms, suggesting that they either have a similar cause or the classification needs to be reviewed.
individual differences explanation of sz: describe the psychodynamic approach
- oral development: teh first time child gained satisfaction. too much or too little can cause the child to become fixated e.g. nail biting
- individuals with sz become fixated in teh first 1-2 months of the oral stage
- regression is an ego defence mechanism where the ego retreats to an earlier stage of development
individual differences explanation of sz: HOW does the psychodynamic approach cause sz
during the oral stage, the ego isnt well developed. if an individual regresses back to a time where the ego doesnt exist, the id will behave without restraints e.g. hallucinations and delusions which are the unchecked activities of the id
individual differences explanation of sz: psychodynamic approach schizophrenogenic mother
Fromm-reichman suggested that the trigger for schizophrenia came from mothers who were overly dominant in the home, particularly towards the schizophrenic child
weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach: unscientific and unfalsifiable
- unscientific and unfalsifiable
- because it is difficult to create testable hypotheses as we cannot prove the existence of the id, ego and superego
- karl popper (1940) stated that for theories to be valid, they must be falsifiable which means we cannot trust the psychodynamic explanation of cognitive disorders like schizophrenia
- weakness because it significantly decreases its credibility as a scientific approach
weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach: failure to produce effective treatment
- failure to produce effective treatment
- because individuals with sz were not suitable for psychoanalysis because they lacked the insight necessary for for this talking treatment
- strupp et al (1977) stated that psychoanalytic therapies could lead to harmful rather than beneficial effects for those with schizophrenia because the individual is encouraged to deal with memories and insights that they’re emotionally incapable of dealing with
- Therefore, this suggests that not only is the psychodynamic approach ineffective in treating schizophrenia, but it may also cause harm.
- This is a weakness as it weakens its credibility as a valid explanation, as an approach that cannot inform effective treatment is of limited use in understanding the disorder.
weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach: overlooks role of genetics
- Psychodynamic explanations suggest that schizophrenia is due to early experiences, therefore an explanation built on nurture.
- Heston (1966) has evidence from adoption studies. Heston investigated 47 adoptees who had a biological mother with schizophrenia, and 50 adoptees who did not have a biological mother with schizophrenia. It was found that 10.6% of those with a biological mother with schizophrenia developed the disorder, compared to 0% of those who did not have a biological mother with the disorder.
- This suggests that there might be some shared genes between mother and child, rather than the way that the mother raises the child, which could lead to development of the disorder.
- important to consider biological influences rather than solely relying on psychodynamic explanations.
individual differences explanation of schizophrenia: how does the cognitive approach explain hallucinations
Morrison (1998) proposes that there are triggers, e.g. lack of sleep, and this can cause individuals to ‘hear’ voices in maladaptive ways. The schizophrenic individual will appraise (judge/evaluate the meaning of something) these inappropriately as due to the devil. This then leads to behaviours like withdrawal or self-harm. There are also consequences for emotions, like sadness or shame, further reinforcing the messages that the critical voice originally suggested.
For example - A person hears a voice saying “You are being watched.” Instead of recognising it as just a thought, they appraise it as a real external threat, believing that the government is spying on them.
individual differences explanation of schizophrenia: how does the cognitive approach explain negative symptoms
Beck (2008) believed that the individual’s mental filters only allow negative messages through and their deficits in information-processing encourage this pessimism.
This leads to the negative symptoms (e.g. flatness of affect, avolition [indifferences to surroundings] and anhedonia [not reacting appropriately to pleasure]
individual differences explanation of schizophrenia: how does the cognitive approach explain positive symptoms
Frith (1979) proposed that the positive symptoms of schizophrenia could be explained by difficulties inhibiting preconscious content. When information from the environment reaches our awareness we interpret it (in the preconscious). The information will get to our conscious if required,and we can make sense of it.
In some people these filters are defective and individuals with schizophrenia become aware of multiple interpretations of the event, finding it difficult to select and carry through with an appropriate course of action.
strengths of the cognitive approach: supporting evidence
There is a large amount of supporting studies for the cognitive approach.
For example, Barch (1999) compared performance on a stroop test of people with schizophrenia and people without. They found that those with schizophrenia were slower and made more mistakes.
The individual with schizophrenia could not filter information as effectively. This supports the idea by Frith that schizophrenics have defective attentional filters.
This is a strength because it provides empirical support for Frith’s theory, increasing its validity
strengths of the cognitive approach: an integrated model of schizophrenia
modern cognitive neuroscience bridges the gap between cognitive and biological explanations, and may provide a more thorough explanation than either approach alone can
Murray and Howes (2014) found Genes or early life factors (e.g. birth complications) combine with life events (e.g. poverty) and this provokes the dopamine system into releasing dopamine. This increase causes problems with cognitive processing (e.g. delusions and hallucinations). This becomes a vicious cycle and prompts the release of more dopamine.
This is a strength because it acknowledges the complexity of schizophrenia, providing a more comprehensive explanation that integrates both biological and cognitive factors.
weaknesses of the cognitive approach: Reductionist
They ignore the social and cultural factors involved in the development and maintenance of the illness.
the issue with this explanation is that it takes a complex experience and breaks it down into the functioning of brain circuits.
This is a weakness because oversimplifying schizophrenia may overlook important social and environmental influences, limiting the explanation’s completeness.
weaknesses of the cognitive approach: blaming the individual
Cognitive theories leave a little more room for free will than purely biological explanations.
this could cause an ethical issue. Cognitive explanations may be putting the blame for the illness within the schizophrenic. All they need to do is change their thinking! Due to the lack of control schizophrenics experience over their illness, perhaps deterministic explanations may be more valid.
This is a weakness because it may lead to stigma or guilt for individuals with schizophrenia, making treatment and support more challenging.
social psychological explanation of sz: dysfunctional families double blind theory
Bateson et al. (1956) proposed that the symptoms of individuals with schizophrenia are as a result of difficulties within the family, particularly parents and their children.
Schizophrenia can develop when a child is repeatedly exposed to conflicting messages and the child cannot ignore them or adequately respond. For example, a father asks his daughter how her day was at school but then doesn’t listen to the response.
The question, “how was your day?” suggests care and interest.
The non-verbal communication suggests something different. These messages cancel each other out.
Prolonged exposure to such interactions prevents the development of an internally coherent construction of reality; in the long run, this manifests itself as typically schizophrenic symptoms such as flattening affect, delusions and hallucinations, incoherent thinking and speaking, and in some cases paranoia.
social psychological explanation of sz: dysfunctional families expressed emotion theory
another family variable associated with schizophrenia is a negative emotional climate, or more generally a high degree of expressed emotion (EE). EE is a family communication style that involves criticism, hostility and emotional over-involvement. The researchers concluded that this is more important in maintaining schizophrenia than in causing it in the first place.
Brown (1959) investigated 156 men with schizophrenia. They found relapse to be connected to the home they were discharged to. Those men who lived with wives or parents were more likely to relapse than those who lived with siblings or in lodgings. In interviews conducted later they found a relationship between the amount of expressed emotion (EE) and likelihood of relapse.
brown (1959) expressed emotions findings
Critical comments
High EE caregivers made comments such as ‘they are so lazy’. Low EE caregivers acknowledged behaviours were due to their illness.
Hostility
High EE caregivers are more hostile, this was thought to be as a result of unmanageable anger, irritation and rejection of the patient.
Warmth
Measured by smiling and empathy when the caregiver was talking about the individual with schizophrenia. Warmth was evident in low EE caregivers.
Positive regard
The number of reinforcing statements in which the caregiver offers support and appreciation. This was lacking in high EE caregivers.
strength of dysfunctional families (social psychological) expressed emotion
Research support for expressed emotion
Vaughn and Leff (1976) support the role of expressed emotion in relapse rates. 53% of those with schizophrenia with high EE relatives relapsed within 9 months, compared to only 12% of those with low EE relatives.
This is a strength because it shows that EE is a strong contributor to relapse and that family therapy would be beneficial to the family of the schizophrenic patient.
This supports the family dysfunction explanation as it highlights how negative family interactions can worsen schizophrenia symptoms.
weakness of dysfunctional families (social psychological) expressed emotion
EE is not always a predictor of relapse
McCreadie and Phillips (1998) failed to find high EE homes to be a predictor of relapse rates at 6 and 12 months.
This suggests EE is not the only factor to determine relapse rates and instead could be considered a strong factor.
This weakens the family dysfunction explanation because it suggests that other factors, such as biological influences or individual coping mechanisms, may play a larger role in relapse. This challenges the idea that dysfunctional family environments are the primary cause of schizophrenia.
weakness of dysfunctional families (social psychological) double bind: lack of cause and effect
Liem (1974) found that the communications offered in a structured task by parents of 11 sons with schizophrenia were no more disordered than the communications between parents of 11 sons who do not have schizophrenia.
Perhaps the communications changed in families of those with schizophrenia when they were dealing with a schizophrenia child. This means that the double bind theory may be referring to the effect, rather than cause, of schizophrenia.
This weakens the double bind theory because it suggests that disordered communication may be a response to having a child with schizophrenia rather than a factor that causes it. If family dysfunction were the root cause, we would expect to see consistent differences in communication styles before the onset of the disorder.
weakness of dysfunctional families (social psychological) double bind: Where do double bind communications come from?
Koopmans (1997) suggests that when a family disruption occurs, double bind communications could begin. There is little evidence of this though.
The double bind communications may be a symptom of pathology in the parents, and perhaps it is this pathology that is a greater problem.
Further study is needed into the origins of the double bind communication if it is to offer an explanation for schizophrenia.
social psychological explanation of sz: sociocultural factors urbanicity
Faris and Dunham (1939) reported higher rates in densely populated inner city Chicago than less populated outskirts of the city.
Approximately 0.5% higher incidence of schizophrenia in urban areas (van Os et al., 2010).
Krabbendam and van Os (2005) suggested reasons for this higher incidence of schizophrenia in urban areas:
Greater socioeconomic adversity
Pollution
Overcrowding
Drug abuse
Exposure to toxins and infectious agents
Greater social stress living in an overpopulated area
The UN estimate 66% of people will live in an urban environment in 2050. sz will increase
social psychological explanation of sz: sociocultural factors social isolation
People with schizophrenia tend to have fewer friends and a more limited social network.
Jones et al. (1994) reported the findings of a longitudinal study of 5362 people born within one week of March 1946. Prospective childhood data was collected, and between the ages of 16 and 43, 30 cases of schizophrenia were diagnosed. Researchers found that those with schizophrenia were more likely to have played solitarily at age 4 and 6, and at age 13 were more likely to rate themselves as less socially confident.
Faris (1934) suggested that people with schizophrenia find contact with others to be stressful so they withdraw. This self-imposed isolation cuts them off from feedback on inappropriate behaviour.
social psychological explanation of sz: sociocultural factors ethnicity and discrimination
Since the 1970s research has shown that individuals of Afro-Caribbean descent were more likely to find themselves being compulsorily admitted to hospital as opposed to voluntary admissions.
This cannot be genetic because the increased risk is not apparent in Caribbean studies. It was suggested that the stress of migration explains the statistics, however Harrison et al. (1988) disagrees as the increased risk was not only found in first generation migrants but also their children. This suggests that discrimination exists in society and psychiatry when it comes to diagnosing schizophrenia.
weakness of urbanicity (sociocultural factors social psychological)
issue of cause and effect.
The theory of urbanicity would suggest a social causation hypothesis. In other words, it is living in a city that causes the schizophrenia.
However, an alternative would be the social drift hypothesis. In this theory, people who develop schizophrenia are more likely to end up living in the poorer areas of cities. Schizophrenics may find it hard to retain employment, or may not be able to manage their finances well. This means that their social status is reduced, and they therefore find themselves living in the high poverty parts of a city.
Mortensen (2001) found Someone with a high risk factor for schizophrenia reduces the risk by moving to a rural area. This shows a clear link between urban areas and illness.
how do conventional antipsychotics work
After the presynaptic neuron releases dopamine into the synapse, the receptor on the postsynaptic neuron is blocked by chlorpromazine.
Initially this causes the presynaptic neuron to release more dopamine into the synapse (meaning the dopamine levels rise).
Over time, dopamine levels drop as it becomes depleted and the amount of dopamine in the synapse reduces.
Lower levels of dopamine in the synapse, and the enduring blockade by chlorpromazine, substantially reduces neural activity.
what do conventional antipsychotics do
blocking the action of dopamine. Chlorpromazine acts as an antagonist for the D2 receptors. It also blocks other dopamine receptors (D1, D3, D4, and D5).
what do atypical antipsychotics do
They have been developed since the 1990s, they work in the same way as conventional antipsychotics, by acting as a dopamine antagonist, but the precise mechanisms of how they work is not clear.
differences between atypical and conventional antipsychotics (seeman)
Seeman (2002) has a ‘fast-off’ theory. He proposes that atypical antipsychotics bind more loosely to D2 receptors than conventional antipsychotics. While this blockade causes a therapeutic effect, the bind is not long enough to cause the side effects of conventional antipsychotics (e.g. tardive dyskinesia - involuntary writhing and tic-like movements of the mouth, face or whole body).
differences between atypical and conventional antipsychotics (D2 receptors)
Atypical antipsychotics are received at fewer D2 receptors than conventional antipsychotics, and at more D1 and D4 receptors.
Most atypical antipsychotics also antagonise the serotonin receptor 5-HT2A, to the same degree as the dopamine D2 receptor.
differences between atypical and conventional antipsychotics (half life)
The half-life of atypical antipsychotics is within 24 hours, conventional antipsychotics are greater than 24 hours meaning conventional antispsychotics may take longer to work but alos last longer.
Effectiveness of conventional antipsychotics
Cole et al. (1964) found that 75% of those given conventional antipsychotics improved, compared to 25% given a placebo.
None of those given the drug got worse.
48% of those given a placebo got worse.
shows cause and effect
Comparing conventional and atypical antipsychotics
(evidence that atypical is more effective)
Atypical antipsychotics are generally considered to be more effective than conventional drugs. They are also seen to have fewer side effects.
Ravanic et al. (2009) compared the effectiveness of chlorpromazine, clozapine, and haloperidol (another conventional antipsychotic) in 325 individuals with schizophrenia.
They found that over 5 years there were significant psychometric scores, favouring clozapine. Clozapine had fewer adverse effects. This shows them to be the most effective and preferable option when treating schizophrenia.
Difficulty assessing the effectiveness of antipsychotics
It is difficult to measure the effectiveness of antipsychotics, as many individuals with schizophrenia do not view themselves as having a problem, and therefore do not take their medication - this is called ‘non-compliance’.
Rettenbacher et al. (2004) found full compliance in only 54.2% of those with schizophrenia, partial compliance in 8.3%, and non compliance in 37.5% of individuals. This suggests that in the real world, antipsychotics might not be as effective as clinical studies suggest.
ethical implications of antipsychotics (side effects)
Side effects
Tardive dyskinesia: involuntary writhing or tic-like movements of the tongue, mouth, face or whole body.
Parkinsonism: tremors and instability.
Seizures.
Do the benefits of the drug outweigh the costs?
Sometimes a drug is administered without valid consent, meaning the side effects are not of the individual’s choosing.
ethical implications of antipsychotics (Chemical straitjackets)
This means that drugs are simply a way of keeping people quiet and under control.
Szasz (1960) argued that the treatment is no more sophisticated than believing in demonology. Mental illness is a way of excluding non-conformists from society.
Does this mean that antipsychotics are used as a treatment to alleviate suffering? Or to increase compliance with social rules?
social implications of antipsychotics
Risk of violence
If individuals do not take their drug therapy they are a risk to themselves and others.
Tiihonen et al. (2006) noted a 37-fold increase in suicide of patients who stopped taking their medication.
The NCISH (2015) report 346 homicides had been committed in England by people with a history of schizophrenia between 2003-2013. This is 6% of the homicide rate. 29% of these individuals had stopped taking their meds in the month before the homicide. This makes antipsychotic drugs a risk factor for violence.
ethical implications of CBT
suffering symptoms of schizophrenia, being assessed, diagnosed and prescribed strong medicine is a scary experience, which CBT could add negatively to this burden.
what does the NHS say about CBT?
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) can help you make sense of overwhelming problems by breaking them down into smaller parts.
In CBT, problems are broken down into 5 main areas:
situations
thoughts
emotions
physical feelings
actions
how is CBT different to other psychotherapies
pragmatic – it helps identify specific problems and tries to solve them
highly structured – rather than talking freely about your life, you and your therapist discuss specific problems and set goals for you to achieve
focused on current problems – it’s mainly concerned with how you think and act now rather than attempting to resolve past issues
collaborative – your therapist will not tell you what to do; they’ll work with you to find solutions to your current difficulties
smith et al (2003) key components of CBT
Engagement strategies: preliminary sessions are used to provide the opportunity to talk about potential worries and symptoms. The client will develop a rapport with the therapist and The therapist will discuss any ‘natural coping strategies’ the client is using.
Cognitive strategies: Remember REBT? The client is taught to use thought diaries and disputing.
Behavioural skills training: relaxation, distraction and problems solving strategies are taught. These are useful for secondary symptoms (e.g. anxiety)
Relapse prevention strategies: together they identify early warning signs indicators of relapse. They are asked to identify thoughts, feelings and behaviours before they were unwell. develop plans for that could be implemented when these indicators are observed, e.g. what to say to friends and family.
how does CBT work
CBT can be carried out with a therapist in 1-to-1 sessions or in groups with other people in a similar situation to you. If you have CBT on an individual basis, you’ll usually meet with a CBT therapist for between 6 and 20 weekly or fortnightly sessions, with each session lasting 30 to 60 minutes.
strength of CBT: effectiveness
S: effective approach
E:Kuipers et al (1997) carried out a study with 60 individuals with schizophrenia who each had ‘positive and distressing symptoms that were medication resistant’. They had been randomly allocated to either the CBT and standard care, or the standard care only condition, and after 9 months of therapy a change was found in the psychotic symptoms experienced in the CBT and standard care condition. 50% of participants were considered to have improved with only one individual becoming worse, whereas in the standard care condition only 31% improved, with 3 actually becoming worse and one committing suicide.
E: This suggests, CBT is significantly better than standard care only.
W: This is a strength because it shows how CBT works in the real world, increasing the validity of CBT.
strength of CBT: reduce psychiatric symptoms
Anthony Morrison et al. (2014) reported that CBT significantly reduced psychiatric symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia
Morrison’s cohort had a choice in their own treatment plan
being able to exercise ‘choice’ may be an important confounding variable and also critical to the success of CBT.
weakness of CBT: short lived
Nicholas Tarrier et al. (2004) studied individuals who either received CBT shortly after diagnosis or received standard care.
Eighteen months later the CBT group had the same relapse rate as clients who had just standard care. This suggests that the effects of CBT were short-lived.
social implication of CBT
Elizabeth Kuipers et al. (1998) analysed the economic impact of offering CBT to individuals with schizophrenia in addition to using antipsychotics. The research reported that the costs involved in delivering CBT were likely to be off set by the reduced service costs in the future.
suggests the use of CBT may initially be more costly, in the longer term those costs are likely to recouped because individuals with schizophrenia are less likely to need emergency psychiatric services. This is a benefit to all because money is saved for other health treatments.
