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psychology > component 3 > Flashcards

component 3 Flashcards

1
Q

stress

A

psychological and physical strain or tension generated by events or experiences that are difficult to manage or endure

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2
Q

yerkes dodson law

A

in order to gain the best performance, you need an optimum amount of stress.

however, too much or not enough stress leads to weak performance

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3
Q

stress as a physical response

A

Selye (1936) conducted research on rats and described a general phsyical response which activates the nervous system to release hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline

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4
Q

stress as a psychological response

A

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed a transactional model of stress. stress is seen as an interaction between an individual and the enviroment.

when a person percieves a stressor, they make a judgement on whether they can cope

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5
Q

primary appraisal (Lazarus and Folkman 1984)

A

considers whether the threat is harmful or challenging

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6
Q

secondary appraisal (Lazarus and Folkman 1984)

A

considers whether there is resources to deal with it

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7
Q

acute stress

A

response to an immediate stressor e.g. exams

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8
Q

episodic acute stress

A

repeated instances of short term stress, can become part of personality or lifestyle

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9
Q

chronic stress

A

persists over a long period of time, can see no escape e.g poverty or relationship problems

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10
Q

Farr and Gibbons (1990)

A

7 types of crime: property predatory, property fraudulent, transactional vice, interpersonal violence, interpersonal sexual violence, order disruption, folk/mundane crimes

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11
Q

Raine (1993) concordance rates

A

52% for MZ twins and 21% for DZ twins

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12
Q

Brunner et al (1993)

A

DNA analysis of 28 male members of a Dutch family who had violent behaviour and found the men shared a gene that led to low MAOA

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13
Q

SAM pathway

A
  1. threat (ongoing evaluation)
  2. hypothalamus activated
  3. sympathetic branches of ANS activated
  4. adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline
  5. when threat is gone, parasympathetic branch of NS dampens response
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14
Q

SAM pathway

A
  1. threat (ongoing evaluation)
  2. hypothalamus activated
  3. sympathetic branches of ANS activated
  4. adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline
  5. when threat is gone, parasympathetic branch of NS dampens response
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15
Q

strengths of biological explanation of stress

A

Leor et al (1996)- more deaths caused by cardiovascular problems on the day of the northridge california earthquake. realistic study, better than conducting acute stressor in a lab so more ecologically valid

adrenaline released during acute stressors can have negative effects on the heart. sudden release of adrenaline leads to bottom part of the heart to be paralysed so the top half has to work harder. this demonstrates acute effects on the body after stress which links together adrenaline and death

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16
Q

weaknesses of biological explanation of stress

A

dimsdale (2008): other factors may be involved in the causes of cardiovascular problems as other factors may be involved too —> can’t isolate stress alone.

taylor et al (2000) women use tend and befriend rather than fight or flight. during EEA, adaptive for women to deal with stress by nurturing their young and creating social networks and fight and flight puts risk to their young. oxytocin is higher in women. weakness because it’s not a single response, there is a gender difference

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17
Q

sutherland (1949)

A

boys socialised to be risk takers, tough whereas girls are socialised to be conforming, talk about feelings and supervised and controlled

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18
Q

cohen (1955)

A

social learning theory harder for boys because girls have easy access to mothers, whereas fathers have traditionally been elusive role models as theyre less frequently available for their sons
boys engage in “compensentory compulsory masuclinity” through aggression and antisocial behaviour which causes delinquency, as boys rebel against socialisation from mothers

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19
Q

weaknesses of social psychological explanation of criminal behaviour: gender socialisation

A
  1. chivalry hypothesis- more women commmit crimes than official statistics suggest. police, magistrates, judges tend to be men and men are socialised to be more chivalrous. pollak- (1950) men in justice system have prpotective attitude towards women. suggests that its not only gender of criminal, also gender of criminal justice system –> lacks validity
  2. gender difference could be explained through biology rather than social factors. testosterone secreted in much higher levels in men. dabbs et al (1987) —> 9/10 inmates with lowest testosterone concentrationshad committed non violent crimes, 10/11 inmates with high t conc had committed violent crimes. testosterone sugg to increase aggression. female oestridol promotes empathy which is lacked in criminals. weakness because reductionist explanation.
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20
Q

application of gender socialisation

A

man up project, males could socialise differently to reduce crim b ehaviour. e.g could be exposed to more feminine strategies of conflict management. positive effect on recidivism.

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21
Q

differential association theory

A

people vary in the frequency with which they associate with others who have more or less favourable attitudes towards crime. these attitudes will influence their own attitudes and behaviour. proposed by sutherland.

a child learns attitudes to crime, e.g. whether it is desireable or not. also learns methods for committing crimes.

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22
Q

strengths of differential association theory

A
  1. it changed peoples views of criminal behaviour. marked a shift from blaming the individual to including social factors. theory stated that criminal behaviour didnt need to be explained in terms of criminal activity, but in terms of social experiences. in terms of applications, we can attempt to change the learning environments.
  2. criminality appears to run in famillies. osborn and west (1979) found that when a father was criminal, 40% of sons had also committed a crime by the age of 18 compared to 13% of non criminal fathers.
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23
Q

SEEW strength of role of adrenaline and acute stress

A

S- evidence has high ecological validity
E- Leor et al (1996) found that cardiovascular deaths increased on the day of the Northridge california earthquake
E- ecologically valid because the earthquake was a naturally occurring stressor, rather than one artificially created in a lab
W- strength because it highlights how the biological explanation of stress applies to real life explanations (creates link between adrenaline and death), making it more generalisable than laboratory studies.

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24
Q

SEEW weakness of adrenaline and acute stress

A

S- a weakness is raised by Dimsdale (2008), who argues that stress cannot be definitively identified as the sole cause of cardiovascular problems
E- other factors such as cholesterol levels or smoking could also play a significant role in cardiovascular risk
E- this means that the relationship between stress and cardiovascular issues is not clear cut, as biological stress responses might interact with other stress and lifestyle factors
W- this is a weakness because it decreases the validity of the biological explanation by suggesting that stress alone might not be sufficient to account for cardiovascular issues

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25
Q

SEEW strength of role of cortisol in chronic stress

A

S- evidence shows that cortisol released during prenatal stress has long lasting effects on a developing foetus
E- O’Connor et al found that maternal stress during pregnancy altered the HPA axis functioning of the child, while Sarkar (2007) showed that higher cortisol levels in the mothers blood correlated with poorer cognitive and behavioural development in the child
E- this means that the biological explanation effectively accounts for how cortisol, a key stress hormone, can influence long term physical and mental health
W- this is a strength because it provides evidence on the measurable effects of cortisol, supporting the biological explanations validity and real world relevance.

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26
Q

SEEW weakness of cortisol explanation

A

S- a weakness is the lack of clear cause and effect relationship between stress and cortisol release
E- when stressed, people may change their eating habits, sleep less, or consume more alcohol and caffeine, which could contribute to illness attributed to stress
E- this means that negative outcomes linked to cortisol might not be entirely due to stress but could result from confounding lifestyle factors
W- this is a weakness because it reduces the internal validity of the biological explanation by making it harder to isolate cortisols specific effects meaning it cant be used to explain stress related illnesses e.g. heart disease, type II diabetes

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27
Q

SEEW strength of hardiness explanation

A

S- a strength is its high usefulness when being applied to stress management
E- Maddi et al (1988) demonstrated the benefits of hardiness training, where participants who underwent hardiness training showed increased job satisfaction and decreased anxiety and illness compared to those who learned relaxation skills or were in the control group
E- this means that hardiness training equips individuals with strategies to view stress as something manageable, helping them to take control and remain committed and resillient during stress
W- this is a strength because it shows the effectiveness of hardiness in improving real world outcomes such as workplace productivity and mental health whilst approaching stress management.

28
Q

SEEW weakness of the hardiness explanation

A

s: A weakness of the hardiness explanation is its reliance on self-report questionnaires, which are prone to social desirability bias.
E: Funk (1992) argued that many hardiness scales are ambiguous and inconsistently applied across studies, meaning that differences in findings may be due to the measurement tools rather than the hardiness traits themselves.
E: This means the explanation may lack validity, as it is difficult to accurately measure hardiness traits or their influence on stress outcomes. Additionally, participants may give answers they think are socially acceptable, rather than reflecting their true feelings or experiences.
w: This is a weakness because it reduces the reliability of the research underpinning the hardiness explanation and makes it harder to draw consistent conclusions about its role in stress management.

29
Q

SEEW strength of type A and B personality

A

S: evidence linking Type A personality traits to physiological stress responses.
E: Friedman et al. (1975) participants with Type A personalities showed higher adrenaline levels and more stress in challenging situations, such as completing an impossible puzzle in a noisy environment, compared to Type B individuals.
E: Type A individuals are more prone to chronic stress-related health issues, such as cardiovascular disease, due to their constant activation of the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) pathway.
W: provides physiological evidence to support the theory, showing how personality traits directly impact stress responses and health outcomes.

30
Q

SEEW weakness of type A and B

A

S: cultural and gender bias.
E: Helman (1987) noted that the Type A traits, such as competitiveness and being a workaholic, reflect Western cultural norms, which are not universally applicable. Additionally, the original studies focused on men, and while Baker et al. (1984) found that women also showed Type A traits, women’s stress responses often differ (e.g., “tend and befriend”).
E: the findings may not generalise to non-Western cultures or to women, whose stress responses may be shaped by different social and biological factors.
W: limits the universality of the Type A and B explanation, reducing its applicability to diverse populations and situations.

31
Q

SEEW strength of life events

A

S: A strength of the life events explanation is the evidence linking life changes to biological susceptibility to illness.
E: Cohen et al. (1993) found that participants with higher life events scores were more likely to develop a cold after being exposed to the cold virus.
E: This suggests that the experience of significant life events can lead to biological changes that weaken the immune system.
W: This is a strength because it provides scientific, objective biological evidence, supporting the idea that stress from life events is more than just psychological and has physical health consequences.

32
Q

SEEW weakness of life events

A

S: A weakness of the life events explanation is its reliance on self-report measures
E: ther ssrs is in the form of a questionnaire, which means that the data used to measure the relationship between life events and stress may not always be reliable as participants may forget or misremember significant life events
E: Raphael et al. (1991) found that when women were asked to recall life events over a 10-month period, only a quarter of the events they initially reported appeared on later lists. This highlights issues with memory and accuracy in recalling life changes.
W: This is a weakness because it reduces the internal validity of the research, making it harder to draw accurate conclusions about the connection between life changes and stress.

33
Q

SEEW strength of daily hassles

A

S: the evidence showing a clear relationship between hassles and negative health outcomes.
E: Bouteyre et al. (2007) found that 41% of students transitioning from school to university experienced depressive symptoms, which were strongly correlated with daily hassles. Sher (2004) also found that daily hassles increased cortisol levels, a biological marker of chronic stress.
E: This suggests that the cumulative effect of daily hassles can significantly impact both mental health and physiological responses, demonstrating the relevance of this theory in explaining stress.
W: This is a strength because it highlights the importance of everyday experiences in contributing to stress, relatable perspective than life events, which may be less frequent.

34
Q

weakness of daily hassles

A

self report measures used, hassles scale doesnt give individuals the option to report that a hassle has occurred but didnt bother them, may also underreport due to social desirability bias
reduces internal validity

35
Q

strength of hardiness

A

practical applications, maddi et al (1988) benefits if hardiness training, ppts who did hardiness showed increased job satisfaction and decreased anxiety compared to those who learned relaxation skills or were in the control group. hardiness training equips individuals with strategies to view stress as something manageable, helping them take control and remain committed and resillient in face of stress. shows how hardiness can increase workplace productivity and mental health

36
Q

weakness of hardiness

A

self report questionnaires, funk (1992) many hardiness scales are ambiguous and inconsistently applied across studies so differences in findings may be due to the measurement tools used rather than the hardiness traits themselves

so may lack validity, as its difficult to accurately measure traits. ppts may also give answers that they think are socially acceptable rather than reflecting their true feelings
harder to draw conclusions, lower population validity

37
Q

strength of type A and B

A

evidence linking type A to psychological stress responses, Friedman et al (1975) found that ppts with type A personalities showed higher adrenaline levels and more stress in challenging situations e.g. completing an impossible puzzle in a noisy environment compared to type B individuals
suggetss that type A are more prone to stress related illnesses e.g. cardiovascular disease due to the constant activation of the SAM pathway. provides physiological evidence to support the theory, shows direct link between type A personalities and stress related illnesses

38
Q

weakness of type A and B

A

cultural and gender bias, helman (1987) noted that type A traits e.g. competitiveness and being a workaholic reflect western cultural norms which are not universally applicable. additionally, the original studies focused on men but baker et al (1984) found that women also show type A traits but womens stress responses often differ “tend and befriend”. shows that the findings may not generalise to non western cultures or women whose stress responses may be shaped by different social and biological factors which reduces pop validity and applicability

39
Q

strength of differential association theory (psychological)

A

ability to explain how criminal behaviour is learned through social interactions. Akers et al (1979) surveyed 2500 adolescents and found that peer influence, including differential reinforcement and imitation accounted for 68% of the variance in marijuana use and 55% alcohol use.

criminal behaviour can be attributed to social environments e.g. peers who promote offending
allows practical strategies to be made for reducing crimes through interventions targeting social influences

40
Q

weakness of differential association theory

A

much of the supporting evidence is correlational. cox et al (2014) difficult to establish whether individuals adopt crim behaviour from their peers or whether they seek out others with similar tendencies.

theory cannot show cause and effect, so cant conclusively determine whether socialisation causes criminal behaviour or reflexts pre existing tendancies so reduces reliability of research

41
Q

strength of gender socialisation

A

explanation of gender differences in crime rates. dabbs et al (1987) inmates with the highest testosterone levels were more likely to have committed violent crimes, whereas those with the lowest levels had committed non-violent crimes.

means that biological differences, influenced by gender socialisation, may predispose men to higher aggression levels. strength because it means that the theory is supported by biological factors too so shows nature and nurture

42
Q

weaknesses of gender socialisation

A

lack of consistent evidence supporting the chivlary hypothesis. carlen (1997) women who adhered to traditional gender roles such as being good mothers were less likely to be imprisoned, but this was not always linked to the severity of their offences. means that the justice system may not always treat women leniently, as other factors such as class or race may influence sentencing decisions. reduces generalisability of the research

43
Q

weakness of the amygdala

A

oversimplifies by ignoring other brain regions. raine et al (1997) while murderers had higher glucose metabolism in their amygdala, they also showed abnormally low activity in their prefrontal cortex- an area which regulates impulsive behaviours and self control.

means that aggressive criminal behaviours cannot be attributed solely to the amygdala, but its interaction with other brain reigons like the orbitofrontal cortex

shows reductionist nature of the explanation

44
Q

strength of the amygdala

A

high predictive validity. padroni et al (2014) longitudinal study of 503 males, finding that those with smaller amygdala volumes exhibited higher levels of aggression and psychopathic traits throughout their lives and at follow up assessments

means the amygdala may be a biological indicator of an individuals likelihood to engage in criminal behaviour over time which shows evidence to support the role of biological factors in predicting criminal behaviours, allowing for early interventions

45
Q

strength of inherited criminality

A

evidence supporting genetic link, mednick et al (1987) found that 20% of adoptees whos biological parents were criminals went on to commit crimes compared to only 15% of those adopted into criminal famillies suggesting a stronger influence of genetics

46
Q

weakness of inherited criminality

A

inability to explain all types of crime. tilhonen et al (2015) found that individuals with a defenctive MAOA gene were 13 times more likely to engage in repeated violent behaviours but not all individuals with this gene became criminals. means that the biological explanation struggles to account for non-violent crimes and requires interaction with the environment to fully explain criminal behaviour. reductionist explanation, and limits applicibility because it doesnt account for crimes such as fraud or theft.

47
Q

strength of eysenck

A

evidence that personality has a genetic basis. zuckerman (1967) found +0.52 correlation for neruroticism in MZ twins compared to +0.24 in DZ twins, and a +0.51 correlation for extraversion in MZ twins compared to +0.12 in DZ twins

means that personality traits linked to criminal behaviour such as neuroticism and extraversion may have a significant genetic component. supports biological aspect of eysencks theory, highlighting role of inherited personality traits in criminal behaviour

48
Q

another strength of Eysenck

A

ability to predict delinquent behaviour, dunlop et al (2012) extraversion and psychoticism, along with lie scales, were good predictors of minor delinquent behaviour such as theft and traffic offences among students.
means that personality traits developed by Eysenck can help in less serious, rule breaking behaviour particularly in younger individuals. can prevent early delinquency

49
Q

weakness of eysenck

A

doesnt account for environmental factors, van dam et al (2007) only a small number of offenders in juvenile detention centres exhibited all three of eysencks variables

theory may overlook importance of external influences, such as upbringing and peer relationships in shaping criminal behaviour. limits predictive validity, fails to provide a complete explanation

50
Q

strength of minimalisation

A

evidence supporting role, kennedy and grubin (1992) found that sex offenders often downplayed their crimes, blaming the victim or denying their involement altogether. maruna and mann (2006) argued that this behaviour aligns with normal psychological processes as people externalise blame

means that distorted thinking, e.g. minimisation, may help offenders justify their actions reducing guilt. strength because it shows how cognitive processes can influence criminal behaviour and provides a focus for interventions such as CBT.

51
Q

strength of hostile attribution bias

A

evidence supporting role. Schoenberg and gusty (2014) showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 55 violent offenders in prison and matched to “normal” controls. the offenders were more likely to interpret neutral expressions as expressions of aggression.

means that offenders with hostile attribution bias are likely to misinterpret non-aggressive cues as threatening, which could lead to impulsive or violent actions. highlights how cognitive distortions may play a key role and allowes for interventions such as anger management.

52
Q

weakness of cog factors

A

relies heavily on kohlbergs stages of moral reasoning. krebs and denton (2005) argue that moral principles are only one key factor affecting behavuour, and they are often used to justify actions rather than guiding behaviour in the first place. additionally, his theory is gender biased focusing on male perspective and ignoring potental gender differences

means that the theory is reductionist and could oversimplify the role of moral reasoning in crim behaviour and fail to account for other influences e.g. emotions or situational factors. undermines validity

53
Q

kuhlmann et al (2005)

A

cortisol impairs memory, in particular the retrieval of negative words. shows stress hormones do affect cognitive functions and that emotional material is especially sensistive to the memory modulating effects of stress hormones

54
Q

kiecolt glaser (1984)

A

stress reduces immune functioning by measuring a decrease in natural killer cell activity medical students during exams.

55
Q

who proposed hardy personality

A

kobasa

56
Q

what three characteristics do poeple with the hardy personality have

A

committment control and challenge

57
Q

committment

A

reflects engaged attitude towards life, individuals find meaning even in stressful situations

58
Q

control

A

believe they can influence events rather than being passive victims of stress.

59
Q

challenge

A

viewing stressors as opportunities for growth rather than threat

60
Q

what do challenge commitment and control act as

A

a buffer against stress by fostering resillience helping hardy individuals adopt active coping strategies.

61
Q

bartone (1999)

A

soldiers with high hardiness experienced fewer negative health effects, e.g. ptsd and depression, even under significant stress

62
Q

kobasa et al (1986)

A

hardy personality more effective stress buffer than exercise or social support. suggetss the three cimponents of hardiness significantly mitigate the negative physical and emotional consequences of stress

63
Q

strength of beta blockers

A

beta blockers are proven to help the nerves of musicians
neftel et al (1982) took a group of musicians and gave them either beta blockers or a placebo 6.5 hours before they were performing, and found that the beta blocker group had a lower heart rate and more accuracy in playing complex instruments than the placebo group. they also had reduced stage fright.
this means that beta blockers target the physiological symptoms of stress e.g. heart rate and muscle tension which allows them to perform more effectively
this is a strength because it provides evidence on the versatility of beta blockers, showing that they can be used for off label uses such as for musicians which broadens their real world applicability.

64
Q

weakness of beta blockers (different types)

A

different types of beta blockers have different effects on stress. schweizer et al (1991) compared different beta blockers to a placebo for students takimng a maths test. and found that although all beta blockers helped reduce physical effects, there were different ratings in stress among the group. this means that beta blockers dont help to show cause and effect as they dont have a uniform effect across all types.
W- this is a weakness because it limits the reliability of beta blockers as a universal treatment for stress.

65
Q

weakness of beta blockers (long term)

A

poor long term effectivity, beta blockers dont address the psychological and emotional side of stress e.g. irrational thoughts or situational pressures
this means that if the person is irrational or has a strong tupe A personality then this is untreated. sit may be more appropriate for long term coping
weakness because sit is needed long term to treat the cause and drug therapy is only. effective short term

66
Q

strength of SIT

A

evidence of effectiveness in reducing anxiety and stress and increasing performance
sheehy and horan 92004) first year law students and did 4 weekly sessions of SIT for 90 minutes. ppts who had sit had lower anxiety levels. academic performance of those predicted to be in bottom 20% also had signficant improvements after sit
E- sit is useful in addressing both the emotional and cognitive aspects of stress and equips individuals with coping strategies to allow them to manage stress better.
W- strength because it demonstrates the practical, long term benefits of sit in real world contexts such as education

67
Q

weakness of sit

A

difficulty to pinpoint which of the three components is the effective part since they overlap. Moses and Hollandsworth (1985) randomly allocated 24 dental phobics to one of 4 conditions. found that some had stage one, whereas others had stage one along with other elememts and coping skills training

this means that its hard to isolate which part of the therapy had the most signiifcant impact since iot could be the initial conceptualisation stage or skills acquisition and application.
reduces psychologists ability to improve or refine sit making the therapy potentially less efficient.

psychology (4 decks)

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