Gender and Language Flashcards
Sex and Gender
sex refers to biological differences, chromosomes. hormonal profiles, internal and external sex organs.
Gender describes the characteristics that a society or culture defines as masculine or feminine.
Gender and Sex differences
Gender differences: those that we attribute to our socialisation. These are differences that are caused by our upbringing our interactions with our society and culture and our environment.
Sex differences: Sex differences are defined by our biology.
Gender representation
How men and women are portrayed in books, advertisements the media etc. This may reinforces stereotypes and our perceived ideas pf male and female roles. They may also challenge our stereotypical attitudes.
Robin Lakoff 1975
Language and Woman’s place has influenced the study of language and gender. at the time it was met with widespread criticism.
There are no statistics inn the book but often uses phrases such as “many men” and “men tend to”.
Despite this, Bucholtz argues that “it launched a far reaching program of research on language and gender whose effects we still feel today”. It is often quoted today and lists the main features of female speech which remains an integral part of the gender and language debate.
Lakoff’s list of features of female speech
• hedges: “sort of”, “kind of”, “it seems like”
• empty adjectives: “divine”, “adorable”, “gorgeous”
• super-polite forms: “would you mind”, “is it ok if”
• apologises more: “I’m sorry, but I think…”
• speak less frequently
• avoid coarse language or expletives
• tag questions: “you don’t mind, do you?”
• hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation: use of prestige grammar and clear articulation
• indirect requests: “I’m so thirsty”
• speaking in italics: use tone to emphasise certain words- “so”, “very”, “quite”
Lackoff and Deficit Approach
Lackoff’s research is seen as the deficit approach or deficit model to language and gender.
The deficit approach is attributed to Otto Jespersen 1922: male language forms were the norm and those of others and women were deficient.
Apologetic forms and indirect requests are seen as less powerful than that of males
Jenny Cheshire 1982
looked specifically at certain grammatical variations in speech of young children. She considered frequency of use of:
• Non standard s (she calls me)
• Non standard has (you has to)
• Non standard was (you was)
• multiple negation
• Non standard never
• Non standard what (are you the boy what hit)
• Non standard do (she do)
Jenny Cheshire’s findings
Overall, boys use more non standard forms more frequently
Cheshire concluded that “variation is controlled by both social and linguistic factors. In boy’s speech, variation is governed by norms that are central to the vernacular culture, and are transmitted through peer groups.”
girls speech is less so
language variation can begin at a young age.
The Dominance Model
Pamela Fishman 1983: Interaction: the Work Women Do, looked specifically at aspects of language that can be linked to Lackoff’s research, but concluded that tag questions are used to start conversations with males and sustain dialogue after recording young American couples. women use tag questions 4 times more than men
Men do not always respond to a declarative (or will do minimally) so tag questions gain conversational power rather than tentativeness or uncertainty.
she calls this “conversational shitwork” and accepts that males are reluctant to do this because they perceive themselves to have the dominant role
Deborah Tannen 1990 (The Difference Model)
originally a student of Robin Lackoff. advocates that me and women do speak differently (the difference model).
“the desire to affirm that women are equal has made some scholars reluctant to show that they are different”. there are differences in speech and these should be identified and understood.
Tannen recognises six contrasts between males and females
• status vs supports: men use language to show power and dominance in conversations; women are more likely to use language to support and agree
• independence vs intimacy: men will use language to show they do not need to rely on others; women will prefer to use language to connect and maintain closeness
• advice vs understanding: men are more likely to be factual in their language choices; women will use language that is less factual and more emotional
• orders vs proposals: men are more likely to be direct, using imperatives to command others; women avoid a commanding tone and be more suggestive
• conflict vs compromise: men are more likely to argue a point; women will use language to avoid conflict and are more likely to try to find a solution
Difference Model offers an alternative view to the deficit model and the dominance model. language is not used by men for dominance, but it is certainly different.
“raport talk” (women), “report talk” (men)
Jennifer Coates 1989
argues children tend to form same sex friendship groups and develop different styles of speaking. Coates theorises that female language is cooperative in single sex conversations. She views yag questions and modality as characteristics that help to make women’s talk supportive and cooperative.
Jane Pilkington 1992
found women in same-sex conversations were collaborative and used positive politeness strategies. She found that men in same sex talk were less collaborative, less complimentary and less supportive than women.
Deborah Cameron 2008
criticised the idea that there are innate differences between male and female speech, arguing, “The idea that men and women…use language in very different ways and for very different reasons is one of the great myths of our time”
Cameron outlines how these myths have evolved around ideas such as that women pay more attention to being good communicators than men; that men have a desire to be competitive that results in aggressive speech style.
Cameron challenges Lackoff, Fishman and Tannen and offers a re-evaluation of the stereotypes and discourses around male and female talk.
these myths shape our expectations and then continue to promote the myth
More recent studies in gender
represented by Cameron’s theory: have moved away from categorising males and females as polarised and driven by biological differences instead of focusing on how speakers construct themselves which may either draw on or challenge stereotypes.
the idea that we ‘do’ gender through language is critical to the deficit and difference models.
ties in with Janet Hyde
Janet Hyde 2005
actually proposes gender similarities hypothesis claiming that where there are differences they are due to a number of other variables such as age, class, ethnicity, education etc.
