gender alevel psychology Flashcards
sex
biological factors that determine whether a personal is biologically male or female
gender
the psychological ,social and cultural differences between mal e and females
what is gender dysphoria
gender dysphoria is when a persons biological sex dosent reflect the way they feel and the gender they identify themselves as being
how is sex determined in males and females
a males sex is determined by the sex chromosomes XY whereas for females it is XX
sex- role stereotypes
Types of qualities and characteristics seen as appropriate for each sex
what are some female sex role stereotypes
Nurturing, co-operative, domestic, emotional, passive
make sex-role stereotype
Strong, independent, physical, aggressive, unemotional
how are sex roles stereotypes communicated
through
Primary socialisation ie parents and peers , school, careers, media, culture,
what did manghal ingalhalikar do and what did he find
manghal scanned the brains of 949 young men and women , using hi-tech diffusion MRI imaging , they mapped the connections between different parts of the brain.
THey found that women had better connections between the left and right side of the brain whilst mens brain displayed more activity withn the cerebulum which controls motor skills
mangahls conclusion
womans brains is adapted to cope with several tasks at once whilst males brain prefers to focus on a single complex task
Androgyny
The co-existence of male and female characteristics withn the same individual
bem
Bem challenged the concept of two gender identities by suggesting that there were more than just two types , she added androgynous
Bems sex role inventory
it attempted to measure androgyny using a rating scale of characteristics ( 20 fem. 20 masc, 20 androgynous)
measured masculinity- feminiity androgynous and undifferentiated
found that most people were androgynous at extreme ends of scale
suggested that androgyny is a positive characteristic as the individuals were more psychologically healthy as they were less likely to conform to gender norms
androgyny AO3
strength-
androgony a03-limitation
lacks temporal validity
The bsri was developed over 40 years ago and the behaviours that are regarded as typical and acceptable in relation to gender have changed significantly since then
- bems scale is made up of stereotypical views and may be outdated
- cannot be applied to todays generation
so lacks temporal validity
androgyny A03
- limition not always positive
Androgynous isnt always associated with positive mental health
- may demonstrate negative masculine traits ie aggression
or negative female traits ie (too timid)
chromosomes
chromosomes are found in the nucleus
carry information in the form of genes
there are 23 pairs of chromosomes
the 23rd pair determines biological sex
SRY gene
sex-determining region on the Y chromosome, causes testes to develop in an XY embryo , these produce male sex hormones
hormones
a biochemical substance that travels target organs via the blood stream. they are produces in large quantities and their effects are very powerfull
testosterone
produces in large quantity compared to women
it controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development.
eveolutionary history-high levels of tostesterone is linked to aggression because it is adaptive.
allows males to hunt and compete for opportunities to mate
oestrogen
female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation.
oestroge can cause hightened emotional and irrability during period - premenstrual tention(PMT)
PMT has been used in defence cases such as shoplifting or even murder
some researchers dont believe the existence of pmt as a medical condition
oxytocin
hormone which stimulates contraction of uterus during labour
- strimuates lactation making it possible for mothers to breastfeed their children
- reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding
known as love hormone
The role of chromosomes and , hormones A03- reductionist
a limitaton of biological explanation of gender is that they are reductionist
gender is reduced to the levels of chromosomes and hormones
- has been accused of ignoring alternative explanations
-the cognitive approach would draw attention to the role of though proceses such as schemas
-the psychodynamic apprroach would point to the importance of child hood experences such as interaction with the family
-gender is more complex than biological factors alone
the role of chromosomes and hormones AO3- social factors ignored
hofstede et al -gender roles amuch more a consequence of social norms than biology
-researchs equates the idea of feminity r and masculinity with wheter whole culutures are individualist of collectivist
-countries that are individualistic are more masculine in their outlook ie us and uk
traditional male traits will be more valued in these societes
- challenges biological explanations of gender, social factors may be more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes
Ao3 - evidence for testosterone
-the link between increases testosterone and sexual behaviour was confirmed by wang)
- male hypogonadism - condition - faulty testes (less hormone produced)
- wang gave 227 hypogonadal men testosterone therapy for 180 days . changes in body shape, muscle strengh and libido were monitored
- testosterone replacement improved sexual function , libido and mood and significant changes in muscle strength were observed withn the sample
- tostesrone has a powerful influence on male sexual arousal and physical developemnt in adulthood
Kleinfelter’s Syndrome
Males with XXY sex chromosomes, 1/1000 males
Physical; smaller testes, no facial/pubic hair, some breast development, taller with gangly limbs, wider hips, often infertile
Psychological; poor language + reading ability, dyslexia, more passive, shy, lack interest in sex, can’t deal with stress well
Turner’s Syndrome
Females with XO sex chromosomes, 1/2000
Physical; no menstrual cycle, infertile, no breasts, broad chests, webbed neck and low set ears, narrow hip, immature physically
Psychological; higher reading, verbal, language skills. Lower spatial and maths skills. Socially immature, struggle to fit in
Atypical sex chromosome patterns - strength- contributions to nature nurture debate
Compare to chromosome-typical people and find differences between both groups. E.g turners=higher reading
identify what changes chromosomes cause, - these differences have a biological basis
- supports view of innate nature influences have a positive efefct on behaviour
atypical sex chromosomes
any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from usual XY/ XX which leads to different psychological and physical symptoms
atypical sex chromosomes -A03- real world application
application to managing symptoms
-continued research likely to lead to earlier and accurate diagnosis of turner and klirnfrlters syndrome
- an australian study of 87 individuals with klienfelters syndrome showed that those who had been diagnosed earleir and treated from a young aged expereinced signififcant benefits in terms of managing their symptoms co apred to those diagnosed in adulthood(herlihy et al)
Atypical sex chromosomes- sampling issue
a large number of individuals is needed to build a database. to see the full rsnge of characteristics from mild to severe
-only those with severe symptoms are identified which may distort the
picture of typical symptoms
- boada et al report that prospective studies have produced a more accurate picture of the characteristics
many with kf do not experience significant cognitive or psychological problems and many are highly successful academically.
this means that typical piucture of syndromes may be exaggerated
cognitive explanation;kohlbergs theory
Cognitive developmental approach
Draws of Piagetian ideas- thinking develops as we age because of physical changes in our brain allowing more complex, abstract thought
Stage theory- has 3 stages
stage 1- gender identity
around the age of 2 children are able to Correctly label themselves as boy/girl
Can label other people other people as boy/girl and relate to one
No idea of gender stability/constancy- so over time or when appearance changes gender can change too
stage 2- gender stability
at 4 years children are Aware that their own gender is permanent despite time or appearance.
But doesn’t apply same logic to others
Engaging in non-stereotypical activities will cause child to change someone’s gender (male nurse = female)
stage 3- gender constancy
final stage of development kholberg claimed that around 6 years of age children recignise that Gender is permanent and fixed over time despite changes in appearance for both themselves and others
At this point children learn gender-appropriate behaviours (before this stage there was no point) & seeking same sex role models
what are the 3 stages of gender devlopmetnt
gender identity
gender stability
gender constancy
ao3 kohlberg -research methods
there is evidence that suggests that gender stereotyping does emerge around the age of 6 as he predicted
-damon told children a story about george , a boy who liked to play with dolls . the chikdren were asked to comment on the story . 4 year olds said it was fine for george to play with dolls
- 6 year olds thought it was wrong .
- they had gone beyond understanding what boys and girls do to developing rules about what they are supposed to do
this would suggest that the children would have m as predicted achieved gender constancy .
gender schema theory
cognitive
first introduced by Bem but then developed by Martin and Halverson (1981)
getting info about gender and gender appropriate behaviours happens before constancy- labelling is enough
schema affects later behaviour esp. memory and attention
gender schema
set of organised expectations of gender to help us interpret info in the brain
formed through previous experience
GENDER SCHEMA AFTER GENDER IDENITY (Cognitive)
Once a child establishes gender identity at age 2/3, they search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema. Contrasts with Kohlberg, this process only begins after the 3 stages, around age 7 with gender constancy.
GENDER SCHEMA DETERMINE BEHAVIOUR (Cognitive
Gender schema expands to include a wide range of behaviours formed around stereotypes. Provides a framework that directs experience and the child’s understanding of itself. By age 6, fixed and stereotypical ideas about gender appropriate behaviour. Disregard information that doesn’t fit with their existing schema.
INGROUP INFORMATION BETTER REMEMBERED (Cognitive, gender schema
Better understanding of the schema that is appropriate to their own gender. Consistent with the idea that children pay more attention to information relevant to their own gender identity. Not until children are older, age 8, that they develop schema for both genders. Serves to bolster child’s self esteem.
GENDER SCHEMA STRENGTH - research support
martins and haversons own study found that children under 6 more likely to remember images of gender appropriate behaviour than non gender appropriate ones. A week later, the kids started to change the person’s gender when asked to recall them so that the gender behaviour was now appropriate. Supports gender schema which predicts kids under 6 could do this.
GENDER SCHEMA LIMITATION- earlier gender identity
Gender identity probably develops earlier than suggested. Longitudinal study of 82 children(zosuls et al), data from twice weekly reports from mothers on their kid’s language aged 9-21 months and videotaped analysis. How and when they labelled themself as male/female happened at 19 months, when they begin to communicate, suggests they have a gender identity before this but just don’t communicate this. Underestimated their ability to use gender labels on themselves
GENDER SCHEMA STRENGTH- cultural differences
Accounts for cultural differences in gender appropriate behaviour. Traditional cultures that believe women have a nurturing role and men have a career role will raise children who form schema consistent with this view and non traditional cultures raise kids who form schema consistent with that view. Explains how gender schema is transmitted between members of a society. Contrasts with other explanations like psychodynamic which suggests gender identity is driven by unconscious biological urges.
PRE PHALLIC CHILDREN
Gender development is Phallic stage. Prior to this, No understanding of male or female and so do not categorise themself or others in that way. Focus of pleasure is on genitals and experience of Oedipus/Electra complex is crucial in forming gender identity.
OEDIPUS COMPLEX (Psychodynamic)
Boys in Phallic stage. Incestous feelings for mother, jealous and murderous hatred for father who stands in the way. Recognises father is more powerful, fears he may be castrated by father-castration anxiety. To resolve conflict, gives up love for mother and identifies with father.
ELECTRA COMPLEX (Psychodynamic)
Girls in Phallic stage. Penis envy, mother is competition for fathers love. Mother is a love rival standing in the way, mother is blamed by daughter for having no penis. Jung-over time they realise they’ll never have a penis, substitute envy for desire of children, identifying with their mother.
INDENTIFICATION (Psychodynamic)
Children of both sexes identify with the same sex parent as a means of resolving the respective complex. Boys adopt attitudes and values from father, girls from their mother.
INTERNALISATION (Psychodynamic)
Children take on board the gender identity of the same sex parent. They receive a second-hand gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage.
LITTLE HANS (Psychodynamic)
(Psychodynamic)
5 year old boy with a fear of being bitten by a horse, stemmed from seeing a horse collapse and die. His fear of being bitten represented fear of castration. Transferred the fear of his father onto horses via unconscious defence mechanism of displacement
OEDIPUS STRENGTH (Psychodynamic)
there is some support for teh role of the ouedupus complex in gender development.
Normal development depends on being raised by at least 1 male. rekers and morey Rated gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 with interviews with the boys and their family. 75% of those who were ‘gender disturbed’ had neither biological or substitute fathers. Being raised with no father may have negative impacts on gender identity.
FEMALE DEVELOPMENT (Psychodynamic limitation)
one limitation is frueds inadequate account of womens development
Freud admitted women were a mystery to him, the penis envy idea reflects the male centred Victorian era. Horney- a more powerful emotion than penis envy his the male experience of womb envy as they are jealous of women able to nurture life. Penis envy is a result of cultural rather than biological factors.
this challenges the idea that womens gender development is founded based on the desire to be more like man
PSEUDOSCIENTIFIC (Psychodynamic limitation)
Lacks scientific credibility, frued has been criticised for lack of rigour in his methods. Concepts are unstable as they’re mostly unconscious. Contrasts with other approaches which have objective, verifiable evidence from controlled lab studies according to karl popper. Key ideas are not falsifiable as proved wrong by scientific tests. Questions validity, not based on sound scientific evidence.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social context plays a role in gender development. All behaviour is learned through observation. Attention on nurture. Significant others that a child interacts with, parents/teachers ect. Wider influence of culture and media.
DIRECT REINFORCEMENT (SLT)
Children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating gender appropriate behaviour. Boys encouraged to be active and assertive, girls encouraged to be gentle and passive.
DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT (SLT)
T)
Boys and girls encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour. Through this, they learn their gender identity. Children are more likely to repeat behaviours that are reinforced-indirect or direct.
IDENTIFICATION (SLT)
Child attaches to a person who is seen to ‘be like me’ or ‘who I want to be’. They possess desirable qualities. Role models may be part of the child’s immediate environment, parents, but also media like popstars. Attractive, high status, usually same sex as the child.
MODELLING (SLT)
Precise demonstration of behaviour that may be imitated by observers. Mothers may model stereotypical female behaviour by tidying. Explains learning from the observer’s perspective. Little girl copying her mother setting the table, she’s modelling behaviour she’s witnessed.
MEDIATIONAL PROCESS: ATTENTION (SLT)
A child will want to emulate their role model by paying close attention to what the role model does.
MEIDATIONAL PROCESSES: RETENTION (SLT)
Remembering the actions of the role model and trying to reproduce these.
MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES: MOTIVATION (SLT)
Desire to repeat the behaviour from wanting to be like their role model-identification.
MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES: MOTOR REPRODUCTION (SLT)
They must be physically capable to repeat their role model’s actions.
RESEARCH SUPPORT (SLT Strength)
smith and lyod
Babies aged 4-9 months. Half of the time were in boys clothes, other half in girls clothes.
-Observed adult interactions. Babies assumed to be boys were given hammer shaped toys. -Babies assumed to be girls given dolls and reinforced for being passive. Gender appropriate behaviour is stamped from a young age through differential reinforcement, supporting SLT.
CULTURAL CHANGES (SLT strength)
there Exists less of a clear distinction between what people regard as stereotypical male/female behaviour. No corresponding change in basic biology. Shift is better explained by SLT than biological. Shift in social expectations and cultural norms means new forms of gender behaviour are now unlikely to be punished and may be reinforced. Can explain cultural changes in gender behaviour.
NO DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCE (SLT limitation)
Doesn’t explain how learning processes change with age. Suggests modelling of gender appropriate behaviour occurs at any age. Illogical to think that 2yr olds learn the same as 9yr olds. Conflicts with Kohlberg-children do not become active in gender development until gender constancy. Influence of maturation on learning gender concepts is not considered by SLT.
CULTURE AND GENDER ROLES
Nature-nurture contribution. If we find that some gender role behaviours are culturally specific, we may assume the influence of shared norms and socialisation is decisive.(SLT)
MEAD SOMOA STUDY (Culture similarirites )
Arapesh were gentle and responsive.(Female stereotype) Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile (Male stereotype). Tchambuli women were dominant and organised village life, men were passive and decorative.
- gender rols may be culturally determined and there may not be a biological relationship between gender and sex.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES(nurture)
Many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles. Consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries. In all cultures, women sought men who offered wealth, men sought for youthful women. In most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines.
CULTURE AND GENDER ROLES STRENGTH
STRENGTH-reasearch support
hofstede argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their more active role in the workplace. Breakdown of traditional stereotypes. Traditional societies still see women as the house maker as a result of social/cultural pressures. Gender roles are very much determined by cultural context
MEAD SOMOA STUDY LIMITATION (Culture and gender roles)
meads study has been criticised
Accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study. A follow up study found that her findings were flawed as she was misled by her ppts. Preconceptions of what she would find had influenced her reading of events. Interpretations may not have been objective, questions the conclusions that she drew. this is an example of both observer bias and ethnocentrism
this suggests that meads interpretations may not have been objective and calls into question the conclusions that she drew
Media influence of gender
observe and learn gender role behaviours from same sex role models (higher status) from media = reinforced
vicarious reinforcement seen
self-efficacy = seeing other succeed = higher probability that child will succeed = imitation
Gender stereotypes in media
(Bussey & Bandura, 1999) men = directive, independent
women = dependent, unambitious, emotional
(Hodges et al, 1981) men = exercising control
women = at mercy of others
(Conley & Ramsey, 2011) women more passive than men in ads
