Approaches in psychology Flashcards
approaches
cognitive approach
it is the study of internal mental processes. the role of schema, theoretical and computer models to explain and make infrences about mental procesess
what are internal mental processes
‘private’ and internal and cannot be observed directly
what are some assumptions of the cognitive approach
in contrast to the behaviourism the cognitive approach argues that internal mental processes can should be studied scientifically
what areas did the cogitive approach investigate(assumptions)
memory , perception and thinking
why are the processes of memory , thinking and perception private?
they cannot be observed directly which means that infrences are made instead
what is infrence
when cognitive psychologists have to infer about how different mental processes work by conducting experiments
what is schema
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience.
why is the schema useful
the schema is useful because its a mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by stimuli
what is a problem with the schema
the schema may distort our interpretation of sensory information leading to perceptual errors such as prejudice
theoretical computer models
they are used to help understand internal mental processes , theoretical models are abstract ie working memory model whereas computer models are concrete ie thinking machines and ai
cognitive neuroscience
the scientific study of biological structures (brain)that influence cognitive processes e.g. damage in the Broca’s area in the frontal lobe can lead to impaired speech production.
the emergence of cognitive neuroscince
advances in the last 20 years due to brain imaging techniques used to observe ad describe the neurological bases of mental processes ie memory
what is a strength of the cognitive approach (1/2)
a strength is that it uses objective scientific methods
- psychologists employ highly controlled methods of study so researches can infer cognitive processes
- it included the use of lab studies to produce reliable objective data
- the emergence of neuroscience has enabled biology and pshycholofy to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study
what is a strength of the cognitive approach (2/2)
it has real world application,a better understanding of thinking patterns helped professionals understand ad treat mental disorders through therapy such as cbt which aims to change and identify irrational thoughts
what is a weakness of the cognitive approach
it suffers from machine reductionism; although there are some similarities between the human mind and the operation of a computer, the computer analogy has been criticised by many as they ignore the influence of human emotion and motivation on our cognitive system , this may affect to process information for example infuence of anxiety on eye witness testimony therefore machine reductionism may weaken the validty of the cognitive approach.
what are some assumptions of the biological approach
> behaviour is influenced by the central nervous system, genes and neurochemistry.
behaviour is a product of evolution
neurochemicals
neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in our brain
neurochemical basis of behaviour
many of our thoughts and behaviour rely on chemical transmission so neurotransmitters
- imbalance of neurochemicals has been implicated in the causes of mental illnesses
srotonin-OCD, depression, aggression
dopamine-schziphrenia
the genetic basis of behaviour
psychological traits are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics such as eye colour
concordance rates are compared to twin studies to see if characteristics have genetic basis
what do twin studies show
if a characteristic has a genetic basis we could expect all monozygotic twins to be concordanr whereas dizygotic twins have a lower concordance rate.
what are concordant rates
the extent to which 2 individuals share the same charcteristics
what are some examples of concordance rates in twins
OCS- 68% mz twins,32% Dz
schizophrenia-48&mZ, 17% Dz twins
monozyotic
identical twins
share 100% the same dna
dizygotic
non identical twins
genotype
The genotype of an actual person if thier genetic make-up. This is normaly 23 chromosomes.
phenotype
This is the actual expression of the personal genetic make up. For example physical appearance.
evolution and behaviour
darwin - natural selection
- any genetically dtermined behaviour that enhances an individuals survival and repriduction will continue in future generations
what is an example of evolution on behaviour
sexual selection- male seems to prefer women with an hourglass figure beacause big breasts carry more milk for children and big hips are more useful in child bearing (its not influenced by the media) it has always been a thing because it has an evolutionary advantage to us. likwise women tend to pick men with a triangle figure because their broad shoulder indicates that they are strong and can protect them and their offspring
what are some strengths of the biological approach
it uses scientific methods of inestigation
it also makes use of a range of highly objective methods to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour
scanning techniques such as fmris and EEgs ( advances in technoogy make it possible to measure psychological processes in ways thats not open to bids
strength of the biological approach (2/2)
it has real world applications , increased underatnding of neurochemicals prosesses in the brain is associated with the use of drugs to treat serious mental disorders
it also promoted treatment of depresssion using antidepressants which increase the levels of serotin at synapse of the brain
what is a weakness of the biological approach
it is determinist as it sees all human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have nocontrol
- it is clear that the phenotype is heavily influenced by the environment as concordanc rates in mz twins are lower than 50%
- a violent criminal could argue no responsibilty for their actions as their behaviour is controlled by a ‘criminal’ gene
what are some assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
- behaviour is controlled by unconcious forces
- personality ad behaviour is determined b childhood experiences
-most closely associated with the work of sigmund frued
what is the role of the unconcious
the concious mind is just the tip of the iceberg that most of our mind is made up of the unconcious
- the unconcious contains threatning and disturbing memories that have been repressed
- these can be accessed during dreams or slips of the tongue
- preconcious contains thoughts and memories which are not curently in concious awareness.
what is the structure of personality
freus described the personality as a tripartied
what are the three part of the personality
id-pleasure principle, the id is selfish and demands instant gratification , it is present at birth which is why babies are so selfish
ego-reality principle, the ego is the mediator between the id and super ego , it reduces conflict between demands by using defence mechanisms - it develops at around age 2
super ego- the morality principle, it punishes the ego for wrongdoing through guilt it develops at around age 2
what are defence mechanisms
they are used to manage conflicting demands of id and super ego , long term use of defence mechanisms is psychollogicaly unhealthy
what are the three defence mechanism
repression=forcing a distressing memory out of the concious mind
denial-refusing to acknowledge some aspects or reality
displacement-transferring feelings onto a figure
what are psychosexual stages
frued claimed that chlild development took place in 5 stage , each stage is marked by a different conlict that a child must resole in order to progress successfully to the next stage oral ,anal , phallic,latency,genital
what happens at the oral stage
it develops at 0-1
the object of desire is mothers breast and unresolved conflict can lead to an adult fixation- smoking , biting nails etc
what is a strength of the psychodynamic approach
explanatory power- ability to explain human behaviour , used to explain a wide range of phenomena such as personailty development , abnormal behaviour
what is a strength of the psychodynamic approach(2/2)
real world application -introduced the idea of psychotherapy frued introduced psychoanalysis which was the first attempt to treat mental illness psychologically rather than physically
what is weakness of the psychodynamic approach
untestable concepts -has been criticised for being unfalsifiable as it is not open to empirical testing many of frueds concepts the id or oedipus complex occurs at unconcious levels which makes it pretty impossible to test
what is introspection(the originsns of psycholgy)
introspection is the first systematic attempt to study the mind by breaking down concious awareness into basic structures of thoughts images an senstions
what is psychology
psychology is the scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience
who was william wudnt
william wudnt was a psychologist who opened the first lab dedicated to psychology in 1879 in germany
what was william wudnts aim
his aim was to try and analyse the nature of the human mind through the method of introspection
what is strutualism
isolating the structure of conciousness
standarlised procedures
- tried to develop theories about mental processes such as language and perception
-range of stimuli (objects and sounds) were used and experience from participants were recorded - observations ere divides into thoughts images and sensations
evaluation of wundt
strength-scientific
weakness-subjective
scientific(wundt)
the methods were systematic and well controlled as all introspections were recorded ina contrlled lab environment so extraneous variables wouldnt be a factor
subjective(wundt)
his research can be viewed as unscientific today
as he relied on participants reporting their mental processes-which could lead to subjective data as some may have hidden their thoughts -diffcult to establish laws of behaviour which is used to predict future behaviour (one of the aims of science )
emergence of psychology as science
-1900s; introspection viewed as subjective to leading to behaiourist approach (obseved and measured)
-1950s: digital revolution leads to comparison to human mental processes and computer processes
-1980s- advancements in technology eg Fmris and EEG scans mean we can study the brain live.genetic testing has helped link genes to behaviour
evaluation of psychology as a science(3)
strengt-scientific
weakness-subjective
emergence-scientific
modern psychology can claim to be scientific as the learning approaches rely on scientific methods eg lab studies for controlled unbiased environments
emergence -weakness-subjective?
humanistic and psychodynamic approach dont use objective methods
humanistic-rejects scientific methods , prefers to focus on individual experiences and subjective ecperiences
psychodynamic-uses case studies which do not refelct a reprsentative sample
human beings are active participants and so can be responding to deman d chararcteristics so scientific study of human thoughts may not always be possible or desirable
what were some assumptions of the behaviourist approach
behaviour can be obsereved and measured so mental processes of the mind were seemed as relevant
- it rejected intropsection
-all behaviour is learned
-humans are born with a blank slate’tubula rusa’
-all animals learn in the same way as humans so they are used as participants
what was classical conditioning
classical conditioning is learning by association
what is operant conditioning
behaviour is shaped by its consquences(negative and positive reinforcements)
what is reinforcement
a consequnece of a behavior that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeted
what is postive reinfrocement
when you recieve a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
what is negative reinforcement
when an animal or a human carry out a certain behaviour to avoid something unpleasant
what is punishment
an unpleasant consequence
classical condioning psychologist
pavlov
operant conditioning psychologist
skinner
what is unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning , unconditioned stimulus is something you genetically respond to , such as food
what is an uncondtioned response
a genetic response to something such as a dog salivating upon seeing food
what is neutral stimulus in classical condtioning
a stimulus that does not give any response at the moment but will after conditioning(eg the school bell the first time you hear it)
outline pavlovs study on classical conditioning
pavlov demonstarted classsical conditioning in dogs using the sound of bels as the neutral stimulu and a bowl of meat powder as the unconditioned stimulus
1) before the experiment the dogs would salivate(unconditioned response)in response to the meat powder not the bell
2)when the bell was rung the first time with no food there was no respons-neutral stimulus
3)during conditioning the bell was rung whenever the meat powder was presented
4)after many trials the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell alone,the bell had become a conditioned response
what is a conditioned response (classical conditioning)
after being conditioned to neutral stimulus you get a conditioned response ie geting up to leave after you hear the school bell
operant condtioning research skinners box
the rat would press a lever and the rat would be rewarded with food, causing the rat to press the lever more.
but after a while, the rat stopped pressing th lever and it would get electrocuted , reducing lever pressses
what did skinners reasearch show on operat conditioning
reinnforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated and punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated
what was the result of pavlovs reasearch
dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (neutral stimulus) to the bell(unconditioned stimulus)
AO3; what were some weakness of the behaviourist approach?
it is determinist as it it sees all behaviour ass conditioned by past experiences
it igores influence on free will on behaviour
it is an exxtreme positon as it ignores the influence of concious dsicion making processes
over reliant on animal as participants , some argue that findings from animals cannot be generalised to human behaviour
limited perspective on behaviour
AO3;what were some strengths of the behaviourist approach?(1/2)
it is based on well controlled research
they focused on the measuremements of observable behaviour with highly controlled lab settings
- extraenous variables were removed by breaking beaviour into basic stimulus making it easierr to estabhlish cause and effect
AO3;what were some strengths of the behaviourist approach?(2/2)
important contribution to our modern understanding o human mental llnesses
-phobias are a result of early unpleasant experiences
- it helped psychologist develop thertapies that attempts to recondition a patient for response
- addictions can be better understood through operant conditioning
what is the social learning theory
a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
what is imitation
imitation is copying oberved behaviour of others
what is identification
when an observaer associate themselves with a role model
what is modelling
imitating the behaviour of a role model the individual demonstrating the behaviour is the model and are most likely to be imitated if same sex and age as observer , and are likeable, attractive with high status
what is vicarious reinforcement
reinforcement whcih isnt directly experienced but occurs through observing others
what are mediational processes
mediational processes are cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
what are the mediational proceses
attention-the extent to which the behaviour is noticed
retention-how well the behaviour is remembered
motor reproduction-ability for the observer to perform a behaviour .
motivation-the will to perform a behaviour if rewarded
what are some assumption of the slt
slt suggests that behaviour olearning occurs directly through operant conditioning and classical and also indirectly through observing and imitating others
outlline banduras first bobo dull study
bandura et al recorded the bahviour of young children who watched an adult behaved in an aggressive way towards a bobo doll
the adults hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it
when these children were later observed playing with arious toys including a bobo doll, they performed much more aggressively towards the doll and other toys than those who had observed a non aggressive adult.
outline bandura and walters second bobo doll study
bandura and walters showed videos to children were adults behaved aggresively towards a doll ,the second group saw the adults get punished for their actions and the third group saw no cnsequences . when given their own bobo dolls the first group were the most aggressive followed by the third and then the second. this showed the imporance of consequence on learning
what is identification
identification is when people especially children are more likely to imitate others they identify as their role model
when does a person become a role model
a person becomes a role model when they are seen to possess similar characteristic to the observer(age sex, interests) and are ttractive with a high status
what is some strengths of slt
it has real world application - as behaviour explains cultural differences . principles such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from others and the media and how cultural norms are transmitted through society . understanding a range of behaviour ie how children undratnd geder roles
this increases the value of the approac.
what is a weakness of slt
it underestimates the influece of biological factors
bandura thougt that lerning itself was determined by the environment
boys were often more aggressive than females , this could be explained by the difference in the levels of tostesterone
this suggests that biological influences in social learning were under emphasised in slt
what is a strength of slt 2/2
it recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning-classsical and operant conditioning does not offer an adaequate account on their own,humans and animals store information about behaviourof others and use this to make judgement about when its appropriate to perform certain actions.
what is weakness of slt 2//2
(banduras research)
its over realiant on lab studies
lab studies are often criticised for their contrieved nature ; demand characteristics
because the main purpos of bobo dolls is to strike it , the kids may have simply behaved a way they though was expected from them. banduras research may not tell us much about how kids learn aggression in every day life
what were some assumptions of the humanistic approach
everyone is unique
-everyone has free will
-everyone wants to reach their full potential
how does the humanistic approach use free will
it claims that humans are self determining and have free will ,
humans are still affected by interal and external influences but are also activ agents who can determine their own development
- the humanistic approach rejects scientific models
what was maslows hierachy of needs
it motivates our behaviour in order to achieve our primary goal of self actualisation
what is self actualisation
it represents maslows uppermost level of hierachy of needs . its the innate desire to grow and psychology fufils their potential
what does the self congruence and condition of worth suggest
according to rogers, in order for personal growth an individuals self concept must be equivalent to their ideal self concept and how you see yourself- it links to self esteem
what is ideal self
the person you want to be
what is congruence
things that are the same
according to rogers what happens if theres to big of a gap between the two selfs
the person will experience incongreunce and self actualism will not be possible due to negative of self worth
what did rogers do in order to reduce the gap
rogers developed cleint centered theraphy
- suggested that providing unconditioned positive regard during therraphy is very important
what did rogers suggest about the roots of low self esteem
roger claimed that many issues we experience as adults such as worthlessness and low esteem have their roots in childhood and can often be explained by a lack of unconditioned positive regard from their parents.
what is a strength of the humanistic approach
it s not reductionist as it rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experineces into smaller approaches
it is also a positive approach - it is more optimistic than other approaches ie frued - humans are slaves to thier past- this is a negative view
what is a weakness of the humanistic approach
it may be culturally biased as many ofthe ideas proposed such as individual freedom would be more associated with individualist cultures in the western world
- collectivist cultures emphasise the need to group,community and interdependenc
-it is possible that the approach does not apply universily and is a product of cultural context
What is the human nervous system
The human nervous system is a specialised network of cells and is our primary interval communication system
What is the human nervous system based on
The human nervous system is based on electrical signals which collect , process’s and responds to information in the environment coordinating irking of different organs and cells in the body
What does the central nervous system compromise of and what’s it role
The Brain and spinal cord , It’s main role is to maintain life
Peripheral nervous sytem(pns)
It transmits messages to the whole body from the brain . It has two divisions :somatic and autonomic system .
What is the somatic system
It governs muscle movement and receives information from sensory neurones
What is the autonomic System
It governs vital functions in the body eg breathing rate . It has two divisions -parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
Controls our flight or fight response
Heart rate quickens , breathing gets faster , pupils dialate and it inhibits digestion
Parasympathetic nervous system ?
It returns the body back to its resting state
Much slower process than symapthetic
It reduced activities of the body hightened by sympathetic branch
Synaptic transmission
The process by which nerve impulses are carried across the small gap (the synapse )between one neuron and another. The nerve impulse is an electrical signal which is carried by chemicals called neuro transmitters
Excitatory potentials
Increase the chance of a neuron firing
Inhibitory potentials
Decrease the chance of a neuron firing
What is the endocrine system
Has A series to Glands which release chemicals (hormones ) throughout the body . The chemicals will then communicate a message to their target organs . The hormones travel in the blood stream. The endocrine acts slower than the nervous system but has very powerful effects
What is the pituitary gland also known as
The master gland
Testes
Release testosterone
Ovaries
Release oestrogen and progesterone which regulate menstruation cycle
What is the role of the adrenal gland
The adrenal gland releases the hormone adrenaline
The flight or fight response
Is generated from the autonomic nervous system it is a reflex response designed to help individuals react quicker than normal and facilitated optimal functioning so they can fight the threat or run away from it
Steps 1 of the flight of fight response
The hypothalamus recognises that there is a threat and sends a message to the adrenal gland
Step 2 of the flight or fight response
The adrenal gland triggers teh release of adrenaline
Step 3 of the flight or fight response
Adrenaline is released to the endocrine system and Nora adrenaline in brain which prompts physical changes in the body
Increased heart rate
To speed up blood flow to vital organs and ans improved the spread of adrenaline around the body
Muscle tensions
To improved reaction time and speed
Pupil dialation
To improve vision
Production of sweat
Temperature regulation.
What is a neuron
The basic building blick of the nervous system . Neurons are nerve cells that prices and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals
What is a sensory neurone
These carry messages from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system they have long dendrites and a short axon
What are relay neurones
These connect the sensory neurone to the motor neurone they have short fr frites and a long axon
What are motor neurone s
These connect the cns to effectors such as muscle and glands . They have short dendrites and long axons
Draw the structure of a neurone :)
What happens in electrical transmission (firing of a neuron)
When a neurone is in a resting state inside of the cell is negatively charged compared to the outside of the cell . When the neurone is activated by a stimulus the inside becomes positively charged for a split second causing an action potential to occur . This creates an electrical impulse that travels down the axon. Towards the end of the neurone
What is a synaptic transmission
The process by which neighbouring neurones communicate with each other by sending chemical messages across a synapse that seperates them
What happens In chemical transmission
Each neurone is seperated by a synapse . When the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neurone it triggers the release of neuro transmitters from tiny sac called synaptic vesicles
What are neurotransmitters
Main chemicals released from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across the synapse from one neurone to another . Neurotransmitters can be broadly divided until those that perform excitatory and inhibitory functions
