Gender advanced info flashcards
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Explain the role of chromosomes in sex
- Humans have 46 chromsomes
- Sex is detrmined by the X and Y chromsomes
- -The ovum carries the X chromsomes only but the sperm carries both the X and Y chromosome
- To be biologically male you have XY chromsomes and females have XX
- The ‘Y; chromsome has a sex determining gene which can cause testes to develop
- The testes then proudce androgens like testerone
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Explain the role of testosterone during gestation
- Gonads are identical in XX and XY fetuses, but genetic information on the Y chromosome (SRY gene) causes gonads to become testes, if there are fetus is XX then the gonads become ovaries
- testes produce the androgen testosterone
- XY fetuses have higher levels testosterone than XX between 8-24 weeks in gestation
- in the hypothalamus, there is a sexual dimorphic nucleus which is bigger due to the levels of testosterone
- this causes the hypothalamus to increase in size, which improves spatial awareness
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Explain the role of testosterone in terms of behaviour
-male hormone
-linked to aggression
-the reason for this according to the evolutionary explanation is because men would compete for the opportunity to mate with a fertile female
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What is the role of oestrogen
- female hormone
- determines female sexual characteristics
- responsible for menustration (in sex)
- In gender: high levels after birth linked to maternal caregiving behaviour
- reduction in oestrogen causes some women to experience heightened emotion and irritability during the menstrual cycle (PMS)
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What is the role of oxytocin
- Oxytocin is known as the love hormone
- hormone is produced more in women than men particularly in childbirth
- proudced massively in labour
- stimulates lactation
- reduces stress hormone and facilitates bonding
- levels of oxytocin in men and women are similar during sexual activities
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What is the supporting evidence for testosterone
Wang et Al
- Gave 277 hypogonadal men testosterone therapy for 180 days
- found changes in body shape, muscle strength sexual function and libido
- shows how testosterone can have an effect on the arousal and physical development on adulthood.
CP
- O Connor et al conducted a double blind placebo study giving testosterone
- found increased testosterone levels in healthy men
- but no increase level of interactional and non interactional components of sexual behaviour
- also found men in study found no change in agression or anger levels
- therefore this suggests it may not have an effect on behaviour. However this does not challenge the role testosterone prenatally
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Animal evidence for role of hormones
Young
- gave male hormones to female rats and vice versa
- found they showed revered sex behaviours for example the female attempted mounting
- suggest hormones play a role in the expression of gender behaviours
- Anotehr study by Quadango female monkeys deliberately exposed to testosterone during prenatal development were more engaged in rough and tumble plays and were more aggressive than other female monkeys
CP: animal studies hard to generalise to humans as the hormones may work differently in the human body. Also gender is affected by socilisation in society so how we develop may be different
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Social and cultural factors ignored (hormones and chromosomes)
Biology ignores social factors of gender related behaviour
- Hofstede et al, gender roles are a consequence of social norms
- ideas of masculinity and femininity are different in individualist and collectivist cultures
- countries that focus more on independence than community are more masculine
- these traits are seen as desirable in these societies
- this explanation challenges biological explanations as gender behaviour may be due the environment
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Role of hormones and chromosomes is reductionist
Reduces gender behaviour down to chromosomes and hormones
-For example it is said that as women produce more oestrogen they are more likely to pick up on emotional cues from child compared to men (Heermen et al)
This highlights how complex behaviour like attachment being reduced down to hormones can be socially sensitive and typical gender behaviours may be better explained by cognition.
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Klinefelter syndrome
What is it, the physical and psychological characteristics
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- Atypical sec chromosome pattern
- this affects 1 in 600 males
- individuals who have Klinefelter are biologically male but they an extra X chromosome
- XXY
Physical characteristics
-Reduced body hair, breast development, long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals, problems with co-ordination
Psychological characteristics
-poorly developed language skills, passive and shy , poor reading ability, problems with memory and problem solving
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What is Turners syndrome
What is it, psychological factors, physical factors
- 1 in 5000 biological females have Turners syndrome
- caused by absence of an chromosome
- XO
Physical
-do not have a menstrual cycle, shorter than average, have underdeveloped ovaries, webbed neck, hips not much bigger than waist
Psychological and behavioural
- have a higher than average reading ability,
- spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks is lower than average, tend to be socially immature, have problems fitting in
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Supporting evidence for nature (Atypical chromosomes)
Contributes to nature nuture debate
- Comparison of people with chromosome typical patterns
- Can Infer that differences have a biological basis and are direct result of abnormal chromosome structure
- Supports view that nature has a powerful influence on behaviour
CP
- environmental and social influence are more responsible for behavioural differences
- social immaturity seen in females with Turner syndrome may arise by the fact that they treated immaturely by people around them, which may effect their school hence explaining why there specific learning and developmental problems identified
- hard to presume differences due atypical sex chromosome
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What is the real world application or research into atypical chromosome patterns?
Herlihy et al
- earlier diagnosis of turner and Klinefelter syndrome has positive effects
- an Australian study found that 87 people with Klinefelter who were identified and treated at a young age were managing their syndrome compared to people who are diagnosed in adulthood
- Also research has led to medical interventions which have improved the lives of people with this condition. For example, oestrogen therapy for people with Turners syndrome helps physical development during puberty
- suggests increased awareness of atypical chromosomes has real world application
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Sampling issues with Klinefelter
- people are placed in a database and the symptoms that are severe are identified thus the typical symptoms may be distorted
- boada et al reports that studies following people with XXY chromosomes are more accurate
- found tehy don’t suffer from significant cognitive or psychological problems and many are successful and academic
- suggests typical picture of Klinefelter and turners syndrome may be exaggerated
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Knowing and not knowing you have Klinefelter or Turner syndrome
- 2/3 people unaware they have syndrome
- may be good because it avoids self fulfilling prophecy
- however early diagnosis can lead to having certain expectations which can lead to bad outcomes
- but it can be argued early knowledge can help people understand the way they feel and it can help with treatment
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Money et al (chromosomes in sex and gender)
Biological determinism
- Money argued sex of rearing was more important and that intersex individuals such as Reimer could be successfully raised as a boy or girl
- However, David showed a strong male identity despite being raised as a girl
- Other research by Gearhart who studied 16 genetic males born with no penis. 14 were raised as females and of these 8 reassigned themselves to male by the age of 16
- This research suggests that biological factors do have a key role in gender development
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what did Kolhberg say about how we understand gender
- Young children inability to conserve (Piaget) will hold them back in understanding their gender
- once a child reaches the age of 6-7 they will have a better understanding of gender
-this suggest that cognitive processes is the basis behind gender identity and gender behaviours
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What is gender identity
- Happens between ages of 2-3
- reached stage when they can label their own gender and others based on appearance
- example: can respond to questions like which one are you when shown a picture of a man or woman
- don’t know that gender is fixed over time
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What is gender stability
- Happens between 3-5 years
- believe gender is fixed and constant overtime but not in situations
- for example may describe man with long hair as a women
- which means they still believe that gender is based on appearance
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What is gender consistency
- Happens between 6-8
- recognise that changes in appearance does not alter gender
- so they know that gender does not change across situations
- for example if a man is wearing a dress they would still say it’s a man
- Kolhberg says that child has a fully developed understanding of gender
- begin to identify with people of their gender
- believes gender stereotyping develops at this age
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What is the supporting evidence for Kohlberg theory
Slaby and Frey
- found children is constancy seek gender appropriate models
- found that those in constancy stage when watching a film clip focused on same sex models for 68 seconds compared to 47 for those who weren’t
- boys focused on same sex model for longer
Damon
- found that those who reach gender consistency have rigid stereotypes
- how? Showed children playing with a doll
- children who were six and said that it was wrong for the boy to play with a doll
- suggests children who have achieved gender constancy have rigid stereotypes about gender based behaviour
- However SLT could explain the stronger sex typing in boys than girls due to societal pressures. In psychodynamic approach how Oedipus complex more formative for males than females
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Is it gender ages or gender stages (Kohlberg theory)
Bussey and bandura
- challenges research that gender appropriate behaviour starts at 6
- found children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ when playing with gender appropriate stays and ‘feeling bad’ when doing the opposite
- therefore suggests children absorb gender stereotypes before the constancy stage
- so it could be argued that a better explanation could be gender schéma theory
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What are the methodological issues in Kohlberg study
Using interviews can be problematic
Why? Young children may not understand the questions they are being asked, and therefore the responses given may not be representative of how they think
-suggests that the ways of testing a child understand of gender may misrepresent what they know
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Is it nature vs nuture (Kohlberg)
Kolhberg stages influenced by changes in developing brain and increased intellectual capacity with age
-this is supported by cross cultural research by munroe et al
Which suggests cognitive changes may be universal (nature)
-however bussey and bandura argue that social processes of observation, imitation and identification are more influential in gender development (nuture)
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Who came up with gender schéma theory
Martin and halverson
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What is a gender schéma and when does gender schéma occur
- Gender schéma: generalised representation of everything we know about gender and gender appropriate behaviour
- according to Martin and Halverson once a child establishes gender Identity
- they actively look for information in their environment my that encourages the development of a gender schéma
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How does a gender schéma déterminé behaviour
- Gender schéma includes a wide range of behaviours and personalities traits
- usually formed around sterotypes
- for example boys play with action figures, or girls play with dolls
- at age 6 children have fixed idea about what are appropriate gender behaviours
- they also disregard information that does not exist with their existing schéma
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In groups and gender schéma
- children tend to have a better understanding of schéma that is appropriate to their own gender or In group
- children pay more attention to information about their in group compared to out groups
- when they are 8 they develop schémas for both genders
- In group also helps a child’s self esteem
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What research support is there for gender schéma theory
Martin and Halverson
- conducted a study with 6 year olds to see if they’re more likely to remember gender appropriate picture over non gender appropriate pictures
- they found they changed the gender of the person carrying out the inappropriate activity when asked to recall
- provides support for gender schéma theory which predicts children under six would do this
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What is a limitation for gender schéma theory
(A biological explanation may be better)
In a study by Alexander and Hines
- found male monkeys were more likely play with masculine toys like a car and females liked to play with dolls
- this is despite never being exposed to toys
- suggests preference for gender behaviour is instinct and it can be explained by an evolutionary basis
- therefore GST may not be a comprehension theory of explaining gender behaviours
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What is a strength of gender schema theory
(Cultural differences)
- Can account for cultural differences
- Cherry: gender schema influences what counts as culturally appropriate behaviour
- For example some traditional cultures may believe that women should have a nurturing role.
- they might raise children with a gender schema consistent with this
- this theory can explain how gender schema is passed through society and can explain why there are cultural differences in gender stereotypes
- However it could be argued that these gender typical behaviours are innate, as if gender schémas was a full explanation there would be more gender variability in behaviour
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Gender schéma (timing)
Martin and Halverson
-believe children play an active role in gender development
-Kolhberg argues a schéma is formed after gender constancy whereas Martin and Halverson argue it is formed at the gender Identity stage
Thérefore there is disagreements about when a child actively searches for gender appropriate behaviour
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Role of culture and social influences on gender
- Case study of Batista boys
- Four children born with female genitalia were raised as girls
- During puberty large levels of testosterone caused male genitalia to appear
- It is said that the girls accepted their new male role without any difficult
- This was made easy that culture being more fluid in gender roles.
- Shows how culture can shape gender development in terms of expectations but also shows how testosterone has a strong biological influence
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Gender schemas help organise memory
Children will pay more attention to their in groups
Martin and halverson found out hat children in under 6 recalled more of the gender consistent roles when shown pictures
-Bradbard et al told 4-9 year olds that certain items (pizza cutters burgler alarms) were either boy or girl items
-Participants took greater interest in toys labelled as their in group
-also able to remember details about toys within their in group
Shows how gender schémas are related in the organisation of information
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GST explains why children have rigid gender stereotypes despite people trying to change them
Hoffman reports children whose mother works have less stereotyped views of what men do
-suggests childrens views are not fixed and are receptive to some gender inconsistent ideas
-but gender schémas lead to just misremembering for example in Martin and halverson study were children changed the person carrying out the gender inconsistent behaviour
-children exposed to counter stereotypes may not remember them that well
-suggests counter stereotypes may not be the best way to reduce children’s gender schémas, instead or tactical approches should be used
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