gender

Question 1

sex

Answer 1

• biological status
• determined by different chromosomes
• chromosomes influence hormonal + anatomical differences that distinguish males + females
• e.g. reproductive organs, hair growth

Question 2

gender

Answer 2

• psychosocial status
• reflects all attitudes, behaviours + roles associated w being male/female
• heavily influenced by social norms

Question 3

GID
gender identity disorder
gender dyphoria

Answer 3

• where sex + gender don’t correspond
• leads to gender reassignment surgery

Question 4

sex-role stereotypes

Answer 4

• set of shared social expectations regarding how men + women should behave
• some have a basis in reality
• many are incorrect assumptions + can lead to sexist + damaging attitudes

Question 5

androgyny

Answer 5

• displaying balance of masculine + feminine characteristics in personality
• high androgyny associated w/ psychological well being
• better equipped to adapt to range of situations
• has to be a balance
• bem - developed method to measure androgyny

Question 6

BSRI
bem sex role inventory

Answer 6

• 1st systematic attempt to measure androgyny w/ rating scale which presented:
• 20 male - e.g. aggressive, assetive
• 20 female - e.g. gentle, affectionate
• 20 neutral characteristics - e.g. friendly, helpful
• respondents required to rate themselves on 7 point rating scale
• 1 = never true of me and 7 = always true of me
• scores then classified into 1 of 4 categories:
• masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated

Question 7

androgyny & bsri
AO3

Answer 7

✔ high validity

• was developed by asking 50 male + 50 female judges to rate 200 traits based on how desirable they were for men + women
• 20 highest scoring traits in each category were used in the scale
• BSRI was then piloted w over 1000 students + results broadly corresponded w ppts’ own description of their gender identity
• suggests high validity

✔ high reliability

• follow-up study w smaller sample of same students revealed similar results when tested a month later
• suggests high test-retest reliability

✘ lacks temporal validity

• was developed over 40 years ago
• ‘acceptable’ + ‘typical’ behaviours have changed since then
• includes many stereotypical ideas regarding gender that are outdated + lack temporal validity
• not likely to be useful in today’s society

✘ cultural bias

• scale was devised using all american judges
• notions of masculinity + femininity won’t be the same in all cultures
• can’t generalise to everyone
• lacks external validity

Question 8

role of chromosomes

Answer 8

• 23rd pair determines biological sex
• Y chroms carries SRY gene - causes testes to develop androgens to be produced in male embryos

Question 9

role of hormones

Answer 9

• chemical substances that control + regulate activity of cells + organs
• control development of reproductive organs + at puberty, trigger development of secondary sexual characteristics - e.g. pubic hair

testosterone

• produced in testes + small amounts in ovaries
• control development of male sex organs + linked to aggression

oestrogen

• controls female sexual characteristics + menstruation + causes some women to experience PMS

oxytocin

• produced in larger amounts in women than men
• stimulates lactation, post-birth
• reduces stress hormone cortisol
• and facilitates bonding

Question 10

role of chromosomes & hormones
AO3

Answer 10

✔ research support for role of chromosomes

• case study of David Reimer who was born as a male but raised as a female, following an accident in surgery
• final outcome - reverted back to being a male
• suggests that biological influences are more important than socialisation

✔ research support for role of hormones

• animal study where when female rats were injected w testosterone they became more physically + sexually aggressive
• additional study w prisoners found that offenders w highest testosterone levels were more likely to have committed violent or sexually-motivated crimes
• van Goozen et al found that trans women (M to F) undergoing oestrogen treatment, showed decreases in aggression + vice versa
• HOWEVER, these studies often involve small samples of unusual people or are conducted on animals
• limits generalisation

✘ counter-evidence

• Tricker et al conducted a study where a group of male ppts were either given weekly testosterone or a placebo
• found no significant difference after 10 weeks

Question 11

atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 11

any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from usual XX XY formation - associated w pattern of physical + psychological symptoms

KLINEFELTER’S

• XXY (additional chromosome)
• affects males
• physical: tall, underdeveloped genitals, reduced body hair, breast development
• psychological: passive, shy, poor language development + reading ability

TURNER’S

• XO (absence of an X chromosome)
• affects females
• physical: no menstrual cycle (ovaries fail to develop) so infertile, small stature, webbed neck, broad chest + no developing breasts
• psychological: higher than average reading ability, poor maths skills, poor spatial + visual memory, socially immature

Question 12

atypical sex chromosome patterns
AO3

Answer 12

✔ contribution to nature-nurture debate

• comparing chromosome typical + atypical individuals highlights psychological + behavioural differences so psychologists can establish which behaviours are genetic

HOWEVER, it’s difficult to establish cause + effect

• as some behaviours of atypical individuals may not be due to chromosomal patterns but due to how they are treated because of their physical differences
• suggests environmental + social factors may be the cause of behavioural differences

✔ practical application

• increased understanding of ASCPs have been beneficial in leading to earlier + more accurate diagnoses of these syndromes
• an australian study showed that those diagnosed + treated in childhood had significant benefits compared to those streated in adulthood

Question 13

cognitive explanation
KOHLBERG’S THEORY

Answer 13

proposes idea that child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated w age

1. GENDER IDENTITY (2-3 years)

• can identify their own sex + others’
• no sense of permanency of gender

2. GENDER STABILITY (3-4 years)

• understand that their own sex remains same across time, but can’t apply this to others
• don’t understand that sex remains same across situations - confused by external changes in appearance

3. GENDER CONSTANCY (4-7 years)

• understand that gender is constant for everyone
• begin to seek out gender-appropriate role models

Question 14

kohlberg’s theory
AO3

Answer 14

✔ research support

• Frey et al presented a group of children w split-screen images of males + females performing the same tasks
• found that younger children spent the same amount of time looking at both genders
• whilst children in gender constancy stage spent more time looking at same-sex models
• supports Kohlberg’s idea that at gender constancy, children begin to seek out gender-appropriate role models

✘ contradictory evidence

• HOWEVER, Martin & Little found that children under age of 4 who had not reached gender stability or constancy, still demonstrated gender-appropriate behaviour + attitudes
• reported ‘feeling good’ when playing w gender-appropriate toys and ‘bad’ when doing opposite
• contradicts Kohlberg’s idea that this only occurs after gender contancy
• supports GST

✔ high ecological validity

• Munroe et al, found cross-cultural evidence of Kohlberg’s theory in countries such as Kenya, Samoa + Nepal
• suggests that the stages are universal
• this supports a biological basis of gender understanding + so is compatible w the biological approach

✘ methodological issues

• Kohlberg’s theory developed using interviews w children as young as 2
• children may have lacked vocab required to express their understanding
• may have complex ideas about gender but can’t articulate these
• there4 may not truly represent their understanding of gender
• lacks internal validity

Question 15

cognitive explanation
GENDER SCHEMA THEORY

Answer 15

• proposed by Martin & Halverson
• childrens’ understanding of gender increases w age
• suggests understanding is acquired actively, by structuring their own learning
• as opposed to passively, as the SLT would suggest

gender schema:

• set of beliefs + expectations related to gender, derived from experience
• develop once child has established gender identity
• begin to search for information to develop their schema
• opposes Kohlberg’s suggestion that this occurs after gender constancy
• schemas are formed around stereotypes
• e.g. girls play w dolls + boys play w trucks
• by age 6, children acquire a fixed + stereotypical idea about gender appropriate behaviour

ingroups + outgroups

• idea that children pay more attention to + have a better understanding of schema appropriate to their own gender (ingroups) than those of the opposite sex (outgroups)
• by age 8, develop schemas for both genders

Question 16

gender schema theory
AO3

Answer 16

✔ research support

• Martin & Halverson found that children under age 6 were more likely to remember photos of gender-consistent behaviour that gender-inconsistent
• tended to change the sex of the person in the photo if they were inconsistent
• supports idea that memory may be distorted to fit w schemas

✔ further research support

• Martin & Little found that children under age of 4 who had not reached gender stability or constancy, still demonstrated gender-appropriate behaviour + attitudes
• reported ‘feeling good’ when playing w gender-appropriate toys and ‘bad’ when doing opposite
• contradicts Kohlberg’s idea that this only occurs after gender contancy
• supports GST

✘ disregards social factors

• likely that role of schemas are overexaggerated
• ignores role of social influences, e.g. parental influence, role of rewards + punishments
• doesn’t explain why gender schemas develop
• oversimplification of gender development

✘ methodological issues

• Kohlberg’s theory developed using interviews w children as young as 2
• children may have lacked vocab required to express their understanding
• may have complex ideas about gender but can’t articulate these
• there4 may not truly represent their understanding of gender
• lacks internal validity

Question 17

social learning theory

Answer 17

• emphasises role of social context on gender development
• suggests gender-related behaviour is learned from observing others + being differentially reinforced for imitation of gender-appropriate behaviour
• can also occur indirectly via vicarious reinforcement/punishment
• children identify w same-sex role models - tend to be part of child’s immediate environment
• modelling = demonstration of behaviour
• e.g. mother may model stereotypically feminine behaviour when preparing dinner; girl models the behaviour by setting the table
• mediational processes: attention, retention, motivation, reproduction

Question 18

social learning theory
AO3

Answer 18

✔ reseach support

• Smith & Lloyd conducted a study where 4-6 month old babies were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes + half the time in girls’ clothes + were observed interacting w adults
• found that when they were dressed as boys, they were given a hammer-shaped rattle + encouraged to be active
• whereas when the same babies were dressed as girls, they were given dolls and told they were pretty + were reinforced for being passive
• suggests gender appropriate behaviour is stamped in at early age through differential reinforcement

✔ can explain shift in gender roles

• sex-role stereotypes are much less rigid now in today’s society than they once were (1950s)
• this can be explained by a shift in social + cultural norms over the years
• as there’s been no corresponding change in people’s biology, the biological approach can’t be used to explain this shift, making SLT a much better explanation

✘ ignores biological influences

• doesn’t consider role of genes + chromosomes
• only considers role of environment
• however, case study of David Reimer, who was born as a boy, but raised as a female but eventually reverted back to being a boy, shows that biological influences are more important than socialisation
• bisocial theory has been put forward
• suggests there are innate biological differences between boys + girls that are reinforced through social + cultural norms

Question 19

psychodynamic explanation

Answer 19

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory - gender develops in phallic stage of psychosexual development at around 3-6 yrs where boys + girls experience Oedipus + Electra complexes

pre-phallic stage:

• no concept of gender identity
• bisexual in sense neither masculine or feminine

Oedipus complex:

• boys develop incestuous feelings for mother + jealousy + hatred for father
• fears father will castrate them upon discovering their desire for their mother

Electra complex:

• experience penis envy
• feel competition w mother for father’s love
• resent mother as they blame them for lack of penis

identification & internalisation:

• conflicts are resolved through identification w same-sex parent
• girls substitute penis envy w desire for children
• identification leads to internalisation of attitudes + values of same-sex parent

Question 20

psychodynamic explanation
AO3

Answer 20

✔ Little Hans case study

• 5-year old boy w fear of being bitten by a horse
• Freud interpreted that his fear of being bitten represented his fear of castration by his father
• and that he had unconsciously displaced his fear of his father onto horses
• provides evidence for Oedipus complex

✘ methodological issues

• HOWEVER, Freud’s use of case studies makes it impossible to make universal claims about human nature based on such a limited sample
• can’t generalise his findings
• low ecological validity
• additionally his interpretations were also highly subjective - subject to investigator bias

✘ lack of scientific rigour

• Freud’s concepts occur at an unconscious level, making them impossible to test
• can’t be proved/disproved
• so doesn’t meet scientific criterion of falsification
• considered a pseudoscience
• considered of less value than others which can be empirically tested, e.g. biological approach

✘ contradictory evidence

• Freud’s theory implies that sons of very punitive fathers should go on to develop more robust sense of gender identity
• as higher levels of anxiety produces stronger identification
• but this is not supported by evidence
• instead, evidence suggests that the reverse is true
• Blakemore & Hill found that boys w more liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculinity
• challenges validity of Freud’s theories

Question 21

influence of CULTURE on gender roles

Answer 21

• cross-cultural research have been v valuable for the N-N debate in gender
• when a gender behaviour is consistent across different cultures, it is considered innate/biological
• whereas when a gender behaviour is culturally specific, it’s considered to be due to the influence of cultural norms + socialisation

Margaret Mead:

• Mead’s cross-cultural research into tribal groups in New Guinea supports the cultural determination of gender roles
• she found that:
• Arapesh - both men + women were gentle (feminine)
• Mundugumor - both men + women were aggressive (masculine)
• Tchambuli - gender roles were reverse (women = dominant, men = passive)

These differences suggest there’s not a direct biological
relationship between sex + gender - roles are culturally determined

Question 22

influence of CULTURE on gender roles
AO3

Answer 22

✘ contradictory evidence

• Buss found consistent patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries studied across all continents
• women sought men offering wealth + resources
• men looked for youth + physical attractiveness
• Munroe & Munroe also revealed that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines, w men typically being the breadwinners + women being the nurturers
• these studies both contradict Mead’s research, suggesting a biological determination of gender roles

✘ cross-cultural research may be prone to demand characteristics

• in western cultures, ppts are familiar w general aims + objectives of scientific enquiry
• however, this may not extend to cultures that don’t have same historical experience of research
• there4 local populations may be more affected by demand characteristics than western ppts
• challenges validity of research

✘ involves imposed etic

• cross-cultural research carried out by western researchers to study indigenous people
• likely to be biased towards western culture
• may impose their own cultural norms upon these people
• by trying to apply theories + methods developed in the west which may not be applicable to other cultures
• reduces validity of findings
• Berry suggested that such research should include at least 1 member of the local population in the research team

✘ doesn’t solve N-N debate

• cross cultural research can provide insight into debate but doesn’t solve it
• both are so closely intertwined that it’s practically + theoretically impossible to separate the 2 influences on gender development
• from birth children are exposed to social + cultural norms regarding gender
• difficult to determine where nature ends and nurture begins
• likely to be complex interaction, where they both influence each other

Question 23

influence of MEDIA on gender roles

Answer 23

role models:

• media provides role models which children identify w + imitate
• children likely to select same-sex role models who exhibit gender-appropriate behaviour

stereotypes:

• Bussey & Bandura found that media provides clear gender stereotypes, e.g.:
• men = independent + ambitious
• women = dependent + unambitious
• Furnham et al found that in TV ads, men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles in professional contexts whereas women were often seen in familial roles within domestic contexts
• suggests media plays a role in reinforcing gender stereotypes

Question 24

influence of MEDIA on gender roles
AO3

Answer 24

✔ research support for correlation between media exposure + gender-stereotypical views

• McGhee et al found that children who have more exposure to media tend to display more gender-stereotypical views in their behaviour + attitudes
• research also suggested that people gain information from the media about the likely success of adopting these behaviours
• increases their self efficacy as they’re more likely to believe they’re capable of carrying out such behaviours

✘ HOWEVER, difficulty in establishing cause + effect

• this research only demonstrates a correlation, not cause + effect
• could just be that the media reflects pre-existing gender norms
• not able to gather a control group for comparison as vast majority of children are exposed to the media
• therefore, can’t assume media is responsible for causing gender norms