Functions of congress: Representation Flashcards
What are the two different ways the term ‘representation’ can be used?
either how legislators represent their constituents, or who the legislators are and whether they are representative of constituents in terms of social characteristics like gender and race
Why can we conclude that congress fails to represent the nation as a whole in terms of social characteristics?
Congress is still significant older, whiter, more male dominated, more professional and more Christian than the nation as a whole
What did Clinton say in support of the idea that congress should be more diverse?
Clinton said that his administration should ‘look like America’ if the democratic values of fairness and representative democracy were to be upheld
Why can we say that congress is moving in the right direction in terms of diversity?
The 116th congress was the fifth congress in a row where the chambers became more diverse in terms of gender and race
Give some statistics highlighting how congress fails to be representative
Women make up 51% of the population but 24% of congress
Blacks make up 12% of the population but 10% of congress
Hispanics make up 17% of the population but 9% of congress
32% of the US have a bachelor’s degree but 97% of congresspeople do
70% of the population is Christian but 91% of congress people are
LGBTQ make up 5% of the population but 2% of congress
The average age of citizens is 37 while the average age of congresspeople is 59
What is the term ‘representation’ mainly used to describe?
The term representation is mainly used to describe how legislators represent their constituents
What are the two contrasting models of representation?
delegate and trustee
Describe the trustee model
The trustee model was advocated by Edmund Burke and James Madison. Here the representative is formally given the task of making decisions on behalf of their constituents. This representation is said to be based on ‘mature judgement’.
This tends to fit well with how most congresspeople see their role
Supporters say that this model is what the Founding Fathers wanted and was a way of dampening the passions of the day in the decision-making process.
Critics argue that the model is overly elitist
An example of the trustee model in action is when Trump’s attempts to repeal Obamacare were thwarted by Republican Senators, John McCain, Lisa Murkowski and Susan Collins
Explain the delegate model of representation
A delegate is someone who is chosen to act on behalf of others. This means they are not a free agent and can exercise little to no private judgement
Legislators who follow this model will base their decisions solely on the wishes of constituents
The model is linked the principle of popular sovereignty, which is where the people are sovereign
Referendums fit well with this model, for here people decide and the representatives merely follow the instructions
Some critics say that representatives only follow the delegate model because they fear repurcussions from their constituents if they don’t. Whenever a congressperson votes, they are sensitive to how it will be received by their constituents. This is the reason that many Republican congresspeople refused to vote to impeach Trump, due to his popularity among Republican voters
Assess congress’s effectiveness in representation
On issues that significantly affect the majority of their constituents, members of congress will be very assiduous in performing their representative function. This especially true for House members, who face elections every two years
On most issues, congresspeople will have constituents on both sides of the argument. Finding out what the majority of constituents think on a certain issue will be a big issue
What is an incumbent?
The senator or representative who is elected in the incumbent of their state or district
What is the incumbency effect?
In the 10 election cycles 2000-18, re-election rates have been consistently high, with incumbency rates slightly higher in the house. Therefore, most members of congress leave by voluntary retirement or death.
Give some statistics to prove the idea of the incumbency effect
The lowest re-election rates for the senate in this period was still as high as 79% in the Senate (2006) and 85% in the House (2010), while the highest re-election rates were as high as 96% in the Senate (2004) and 98% in the house (2000)
What are the 4 main benefits of being an incumbent?
- Constituency services and name recognition
- Pork barrel politics
- Fundraising
- Gerrymandering
What are constituency services?
Incumbents can provide constituency services, like helping constituents receive the correct level of service from a federal government department or agency (this is similar to the redress of grievances in the UK parliament)
What will the re-election campaign of an incumbent largely focus on?
The re-election campaign of an incumbent will focus on how they have benefitted their state/district
List the structural advantages incumbents have over their challengers
As members of congress, they have their own official website, which they use to demonstrate their successes and influence, and it provides a simple way for their constituents to contact them
Franking privileges allow them to mail their constituents at congress’ expense, and although this cannot be used for overt electoral ends, it can be used to increase name recognition
Incumbents will have a high level of name recognition compared to a challenger plus seniority in congress and perhaps membership in prestigious committees or sub-committees, normally ones that are related to constituency interests, and maybe even the position of committee chair. Replacing the incumbent means losing these years of seniority that have been built up in congress – seniority which may bring significant benefits to constituents through pork barrel politics…
What does the term ‘pork barrel politics’ mean?
This term is used to describe funds for superfluous projects in a congressperson’s state or district. These projects are specifically designed to benefit constituents in the hope of gaining votes
Why are there contradictory attitudes to pork barrel politics amongst Americans?
Ordinary voters have always had contradictory attitudes towards pork barrel politics, praising their own congresspeople if they are beneficiaries while criticisng other members of congress for wasteful spending when they do it
How much was spent on pork barrel politics in 2019?
An estimated $13.5 billion was spent on pork barrel politics in 2019
On what spectrum will pork barrel politics projects fall?
Some projects can be quite small in scale, while others can be very expensive and spiral out of control.
Give an example of a very expensive pork barrel politics project that spiralled out of control
‘Big Dig Highway’ project in Boston (1991-2007) – This project to move 3.5 miles of highway underground was supposed to cost $3 billion. The entire process came to $14.6 billion and overran by a decade. This is seen as the ultimate folly by critics of pork barrel politics, although the Boston residents that benefitted from the huge investment would beg to differ
Give an example of small scale pork barrel politics project
Arts programme in Washington DC (2018) - This was an example of a small scale project. The sum of $2.8 million was allocated for the National Capital Arts and Cultural Affairs grant programme, which funda art and cultural institutions in Washingon DC
Explain the fundraising advantage incumbents enjoy over their challengers
Most incumbents have a huge advantage over challengers in terms of funding
Incumbent senators raised 7 times as much as their challenges in 2018 while House members outraised their challengers 8 fold
Vicious circle for challengers. Incumbents are far more likely to be re-elected, so they find it easier to raise money. Money is crucial in congressional elections. The money is spent on buying TV advertising time, hiring political consultants, hiring halls for campaign rallies and printing yard signs, badges and bumper stickers
What is gerrymandering?
This is the deliberate shaping of congressional districts to give one party an advantage
What does gerrymandering help us explain?
This helps to explain why so many incumbents are re-elected
Explain how gerrymandering works
Each state draws up its congressional districts, with the state legislature able to de-draw the boundaries every decade. This has led to the governing party of each of the state legislatures drawing district boundaries to give themselves an electoral advantage
It is possible to create very different electoral outcomes just by tampering with the district boundaries
Give an example of gerrymandering causing voter suppression
North Carolina is an example of gerrymandering causing voter suppression. In 2020, a majority of voters there supported the D candidates but the majority of seats were won by Rs
What did Professor David McKay argue gerrymandering led to in 2018?
In 2018, Professor David McKay argued that districts that come about as a result of gerrymandering are often bizarrely shaped
List the factors influencing voting behaviour in congress
Political parties
Congressional caucuses
The administration
The constituency
Pressure groups
Lobbyists
What will the importance of each of these factors depend upon?
The importance of each factor will vary depending on the member of congress in question
Voting decisions are influenced by the delegate and trustee models
Why can political parties be seen as the most important influence on congressional voting behaviour?
Due to the fact that we are in an era of party polarisation
What is a ‘party vote’?
A ‘party vote’ refers to a vote where the majority of one party goes against the majority of the other party. The occurs in congress when the issue at hand is contentious and ideological; things like civil liberties, tax, gun control, abortion or school prayers
Give an example of a party vote
The Federal Information Systems Safeguard Act (2016) is an example of a party vote. All except two Rs voted in favour and all but 4 Ds voted against
Why is party voting not as prevelent as it is in the UK?
The parties have few carrots and sticks to encourage party voting. Threats of de-selection do not work in a system where voters decide on candidtes in primary elections. Carrots like spots in the executive do not work given the separation of powers
Counter the idea that political parties are the most important factor on congressional voting behaviour
Although party affiliation is an important factor, party labels do not necessarily mean voting together. Conservative Ds, like Congressmen Jim Cooper of Tennessee, often voted with Rs, and liberal Rs, such as Senator Susan Collins of Maine, often vote with the Ds. Likewise, if the party’s position on an issue contradicts the popular consensus of the congressperson’s district or state, they will often vote against their party. However, these people tend to be the exception to the rule as parties become increasingly polarised
What is a caucus?
These are collections of members of either major party. They look to advance a special interest and pursue common legislative objectives
Give an example of a congressional caucus
An example of a caucus is the Congressional Hispanic Caucus, a bipartisan group that focuses on policies to help and benefit the Hispanic and Latino communities
Why are there only 4 congressional caucuses strictly speaking and what do they do?
Strictly speaking, there are just four caucuses, the House R Caucus and the House D Caucus in both the House and the Senate. The Ds refer to their groups as the Democratic Caucus while the Rs refer to theirs as the Republican Conference. These groups elect the majority and minority leaders and the whips in each house. They perform organisational functions and meet to discuss legislative strategy.
Why are there now many more than just 4 caucuses?
Over time, and especially in the House due to its larger membership, other groups or caucuses – officially called congressional membership organisations – have grown to represent smaller, more cohesive groups within each chamber, often based on ideological, regional, ethnic or economic interests. These caucuses are a growing rival to party leadership and are increasingly a factor in congressional voting
Give some examples of single issue caucuses
A number of caucuses are single issue, like the Pro-Choice and LGBBTQ+ Equality caucuses
Give some examples of some more niche caucuses
the AI Caucus and the Congressional National Park Caucus
What are three main functions of congressional caucuses?
Education, agenda setting and encouraging support
Explain the function of education
They educate members on proposed legislation and may offer policy briefings
Explain the function of agenda setting
Members may work together to boost the chances of something getting on the congressional legislative agenda. They might do this through co-sponsoring legislation, circulating ‘Dear Colleague’ letters to drum up support, meeting with party leadership to press their cause, or lobbying relevant committee members
Explain the function of encouraging support
Encouraging people to vote in favour on the floor chamber
What is the Blue Dog Coalition?
A group of mainly southern House Ds who are fiscally conservative. Formed in 1995 in the wake of significant R gains. Gave a voice to conservative, moderate, centrist Ds. Influential in passing 1995-6 welfare reform. Currently 18 members
What is the Congressional Black Caucus?
Formed in 1971 for exclusively black American members of both houses. Originally 13 members. Currently has 60 members – all but two are House Ds. Although it claims to be bipartisan, only 5 Rs have ever joined
What is the Congressional Hispanic Caucus?
Formed in 1976 to support policies that benefit the Hispanic community. 3 senators and 32 House members currently. Began as a bipartisan group, but R members left in the late 1990s to form their own caucus, the Congressional Hispanic Conference, which currently has 6 members, all in the house
What is the House Freedom Caucus?
Found in 2015. Considered to be the most right wing of all the caucuses. 45 members in the House, all R. Most members also belong to the R study committee, a much larger conservative R caucus in the house with over 147 members. Supports ‘limited government, the constitution, the rule of law and policies that promote the liberty, safety and prosperity of all Americans
What is The Tuesday Group?
Informal caucus of around 25 moderate House Rs. Founded in 1995 following the R takeover of the House to counter balance a large number of conservative Rs who were newly elected in the 1994 midterms. Closely allied with another caucus – the Republican Mainstream Partnership – made up of 70 moderate Rs from both chambers. In 2007, the Tuesday Group set up its own political action committee (PAC) to help members improve their chances of re-election
Give an example of how not all caucuses are set up along party lines
Not all caucuses are set along party lines. For instance, the Congressional Steel Caucus has over 100 members, both Rs and Ds, who mainly represent districts and states with an interest in steel manufacturing
What does the term ‘administration’ refer to?
The term ‘administration’ refers to members of the executive branch, and crucially the president
Who initiates alot of congressional legislation?
The administration
Why do cabinet members have a keen interest in the passage of legislation?
Cabinet members, the heads of the 15 executive departments, have a keen interest in the passage of legislation affecting their policy areas
What do members of the administration do try and influence legislators?
Members of the administration keep in contact with members of congress through phone calls and meetings in an attempt to convince them to vote favourably. They talk with members of relevant committees and staff members on Capitol Hill
How will the WH try and influence legislation?
The WH often gets involved through the Office of Legislative Affairs as well as directly through the president. The House Speaker and Senate Majority Leader will play a key role in liaising with the WH, the various caucuses and individual members of congress. For instance, in 2010, Nancy Pelosi was crucial in ensuring that enough concessions were made to gain sufficient votes from the Blue Dog Coalition to pass Obamacare
What three things does persuasion from the executive need to be and why?
Regular because it is important that a member of congress is not just approached right before a vote
Reciprocal because it is important the WH members are willing to do favours in return
Bipartisan because all this needs to be done with members of both parties. For an administration to talk only with members of his own party is usually a recipe for disaster. Success tends to occur in congress when there is a bipartisan coalition
List the reasons why representatives place a high premium on representing the views of their constituents
The constitution states that they must be residents of the state they represent, so that this gives them a good understanding of what those they represent think and want
A number of states go further by insisting that, through the ‘locality rule’, that House members reside in the district they represent
Typical House and Senate members do not just reside in the state or district they represent; they will also have been, born, educated, raised and would have worked there
House members are especially careful about the views of their constituents because of the two-year re-election cycle they face
An incumbent may have to win a primary to see whether they can represent their party within their area, meaning they have to make sure that they represent those constituents specifically part of their party. For instance, D Joseph Crowley represented NY’s 14th district from 1999-2019 before being beaten in a primary by AOC, who went on to retain the seat for the Ds
List the methods that representatives can use to make sure they remain in touch with the views of their constituents
There are various methods members of congress can use to find out about their constituents views. While they are in Washington, they can keep in touch by phone and email offices back in their state or district. They can read newspapers to keep informed about constituency events. They receive letters, visits, emails, phone calls and letters from constituents. They discover what constituents want by taking regular visits home
List the variety of engagements senate and house members have at home
Holding party and town hall meetings
Conducting surgeries with individual constituents
Make visits around the state/district
Appearing on local radio phone in programmes
Interviews with representatives of the local media
Addressing groups such as chambers of commerce, professional groups and charity lunches
Visiting schools, hospitals and businesses
Explain how representatives have begun making better use of online tools
Members of congress make frequent use of online communication tools to keep in touch with members of constituents, such as televised town hall meetings, video conferences, posting their activities on YouTube and blogging. Members are also taking to Facebook, Twitter and TikTok to show their more personal side to constituents
Why is difficult for representatives to get an idea of how their constituents want them to vote?
Because their constituents will be divided on most issues
Why are representatives more likely to hear negative opinions about legislation?
Through town hall meetings and constituency mail, negative opinions are much more likely to be expressed than positive opinions. One D congressmen described constituency mail as ‘what folks don’t like from the folks who don’t like it’. It is usually not representative of constituency opinion
Why should representatives not simply act as a delegate?
Members of congress are meant to be more than just delegates and may need to factor in other things, mainly the national interest, more than just what is locally popular or politically expedient, therefore fulfilling the role of a trustee. In practise, members of congress often switch between the delegate and trustee models
Give a recent example of constituency opinion being so powerful that it caused representatives to defy their party leadership
A recent example of this would be the 12 R representatives who voted against the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act. All were predominantly representatives of California, New Jersey and NY districts whose constituents would have actually seen their taxes increase because of a cap on state and local tax deductions
List the different methods interest groups use to influence voting behaviour
They make direct contact with members and their staff
They attempt to generate public support for their position
They make visits and phone calls
Provide evidence to committees
Organise rallies, demonstrations and petition drives
Engage in fundraising and campaigning
What do interest groups use the money they raise to do?
Money raised is used to fund politicians who support their cause and attack those that oppose it
Give some examples of issues that have been big for interest groups in recent years
the retired, healthcare, abortion, guns, big business and the environment
How much did big business donate to candidates in the 2020 election cycle?
In the 2020 election cycle big business donated just over $75 million to candidates
How do interest groups have influence over how representatives vote?
When representatives vote, they will be mindful of what the interest groups who have donated to them will want
What are lobbyists employed to do?
Employed by interest groups to try and influence
What is the most effective way of lobbying and why?
The most effective way of lobbying is the provision of accurate, detailed and up-to-date information to those who need it. Legislators and bureaucrats are busy people with limited time and resources on their hands. Legislators in particular must seem knowledgeable about and take a stand on lots and lots of policies issues. Interest groups are often their only source of info and they may even draft examples of what possible legislation could look like
Why can lobbyists and the info they provide not always be trusted?
It should be noted that lobbyists will sometimes produce events specifically to promote their own cause, although legislators are usually savvy enough to know when interest groups are trying to present a distorted picture
What will effective lobbyists be able to do?
The more effective the legislator, the better they are at getting congresspeople to adopt their position
What will interests groups do to facilitate lobbying?
In order to facilitate lobbying, pressure groups maintain offices in Washington and various state capitals
What do critics say about lobbying?
Critics argue that lobbyists have more influence over legislators than their constituents
