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Functioning systems Flashcards

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1
Q

multicellularity

A
  • multicellularity means that the functions necessary to maintain life are shared between different specialised cells.
  • cells work cooperatively for survival and reproduction
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2
Q

what makes organisms multicellular?

A
  • cells (except gametes) must have the same DNA.
  • cells must be connected, communicate and cooperate to function as a single organism.
    -must have specialised cells
  • cells must be dependant on each other
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3
Q

advantages of multicellularity in plants

A
  • more energy efficient & longer lifespan
  • sexual reproduction
  • variation in population
  • complex responses to external stimuli
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4
Q

disadvantages of multicellularity in plants

A
  • more energy required for survival
  • cells cannot function independently
  • more energy required for sexual reproduction
  • populations take longer to evolve
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5
Q

levels of organisation in animal cells

A

organisational level of cells:
- specialised cells
- tissues
- organs
- systems
- organism

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6
Q

cell specialisation

A
  • all multicellular organisms begin as a single cell (zygote) from the fusion of gametes
  • the zygote develops into a multicellular embryo via mitosis
  • continued cell division, resulting in multicellular organism and trillions of specialised cells
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7
Q

define cell differentiation

A

unspecialised cells (stem cells) become specialised cells

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8
Q

cell differentiation

A
  • stem cells originate in blastula (blastocyst in mammals)
    > make up germ layers & differentiate to form specialised cells (tissues & organs)
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9
Q

what are the three germ layers

A
  • endoderm (internal) > lung, digestive & thyroid cells
  • mesoderm (middle) > cardiac & skeletal muscle, RBC’s
  • ectoderm (external) > neuron on brain, pigment cells
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10
Q

differentiation in animals

A

adult stem cells and only occurs in some tissues

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11
Q

differentiation in plants

A
  • meristem tissue (at tips of shoots and roots)
  • apical meristem (organs and root growth)
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12
Q

what is gene expression

A

the process where the information stored in genes is used to build different structures in a cell

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13
Q

features of gene expression

A
  • determines how cells differentiate & function
  • specialised cells:
    > some genes are expressed / ‘switched on’
    > some are not expressed / ‘switched off’
  • eg. specialised pancreatic cells express the genes needed to produce insulin
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14
Q

levels organisation in vascular plants

A
  • specialised cells
  • tissues
    -organs
  • systems
    -organism
  • eg. angiosperms, conifers, cycads, ferns, ginkoes
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15
Q

functions of specialised cells in vascular plants

A
  • transport of nutrients
  • transport of H2O
  • acquiring energy via photosynthesis
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16
Q

functions of specialised tissues in vascular plants

A
  • involved in transport of H2O and nutrients
    > xylem (H2O from roots)
    > phloem (sugars and other organic compounds)
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17
Q

functions of specialised organs in vascular plants: roots

A
  • absorb & store H2O and nutrients from soil
  • support- anchor the plant to the ground
    Stems:
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18
Q

functions of specialised organs in vascular plants: stems

A
  • support the plant
  • transport H2O and nutrients (+ stores)
  • grow new plant tissue
    > dermal tissue (outer layer)
    > ground tissue (inner layer- non-vascular tissue)
    > vascular tissue
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19
Q

specialised organs in vascular plants: leaves

A
  • made up of: upper and lower epidermis and mesophyll
  • vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) = veins in leaf structure
  • photosynthesis
  • epidermis (upper): covers entire leaf, secretes the waxy cuticle, no chloroplasts
  • epidermis (lower): regulates gas exchange and H2O loss
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20
Q

C3 plants

A
  • account for 95>% of plants
  • photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll cells
  • 3 carbon molecules produced by CO2 molecule
    > calvin cycle
  • follow photosynthetic pathway with stomata open
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21
Q

C4 plants

A
  • more complex photosynthetic process that C3 plants
  • occurs in mesophyll & bundle sheath cells
  • no photorespiration
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22
Q

specialised organs in vascular plants: flowers & friuts

A

FLOWERS:
- assist with fertilisation of ovules (in ovaries) by sperm (in pollen)
- specialised structures
> attract pollinaters
> create pollen for wind or water dispersal
FRUITS:
- protect the developing seeds
- help seeds disperse away
> attach to fur on animals for dispersal

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23
Q

equation for photosynthesis

A

6CO2 + 6H2O –> C6H12O6 + 6O2

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24
Q

equation for cellular respiration

A

C6H12O 6 + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

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25
Q

what are specialised cells

A

specialised cells are cells that have:
- a specific function.
- unique structural adaptations to carry out their functions

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26
Q

advantages of multicellularity in animals

A
  • body cells isolated from external enviro by skin
  • buffers against changes in external enviro
  • allows internal conditions to be maintained
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27
Q

disadvantages of multicellularity in animals

A
  • cells don’t have direct access to external enviro
  • difficult for cells to gain essential substances (H2O and nutrients) and remove unwanted substances (CO2 and wastes)
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28
Q

what are specialised tissues (animals)

A

groups of similar specialised cells working together to carry out a particular function

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29
Q

what are the 4 basic types of specialised tissues (animals)

A
  1. muscle tissue- cells that can contract (skeletal & cardiac)
  2. nerve tissue- neurons sense stimuli & transmit signals
  3. connective tissue- supporting & connecting structures (bone & blood)
  4. epithelial tissue- one/more layers of cells: cover internal and external surfaces (skin, intestinal lining)
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30
Q

organs

A

structures made up of 2 or more tissues that perform a similar function

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31
Q

carbohydrates

A
  • immediate energy source
  • glucose broken down to ATP
    > excess stored as glycogen - polysaccaride
    > stored in liver and muscles
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32
Q

lipids (fats)

A
  • energy storage
  • required for creation of cell membrane, hormones and vitamins
33
Q

amino acids (protein)

A
  • required for protein synthesis
  • not stored but are found in blood
  • animals can’t synthesise all the amino acids they need
34
Q

vitamins

A
  • organic compounds made by plants, some animals and microorganisms
  • required in small amounts
  • 13 required by humans and other mammals
35
Q

minerals

A
  • inorganic
  • more than 20 required in our diet
  • calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, sodium, potassium, iodine
  • found in cytosol of cells, structured components & molecules of many enzymes and vitamins
36
Q

what are vascular plants

A

plants with specialised vascular tissues and systems for the transport of water and nutrients, including xylem and phloem

37
Q

what are the tissues for transportation in vascular plants

A

transport occurs inside closed vessels which are organised into vascular bundles, consisting of:
- xylem: transports H2O and dissolved nutrients from the roots to leaves
- phloem: transports sugars from leaves to roots
- lignin: sheath that strengthens and supports the tissue

38
Q

structure and function of vascular tissue

A

xylem and phloem:
- contain continuous tubular pathways through the roots, stems & leaves
- fluids flow through these tubes to all parts of the plant

39
Q

arrangement of xylem and phloem tissues in roots, stems and leaves

A

roots:
- central core of the xylem in a star/cross shape, with phloem between the arms of the xylem
stems and leaves:
- xylem and phloem grouped into vascular bundles

40
Q

xylem tissue

A

composed of xylem vessels and tracheids
- long, water filled tubes made up of dead cells joined end to end
- openings at each end so fluid can flow through
- tracheids: large, pointed, water-filled cells
> not connected end to end
- mature tracheids and xylem tissue:
> made of dead cells
> are strengthened

41
Q

phloem tissue

A
  • transports organic solutes- sugars such as sucrose (glucose and fructose)
  • transported from the site of synthesis (leaves) to site of use/storage (stems and roots)
  • composed of:
    > sieve tubes
    > companion cells
    > parenchyma cells
    > sclerenchyma cells
42
Q

mature phloem sieve tubes

A
  • living cells
  • no lignin in their cell walls
  • linear rows of elongated cells
  • plasmodesmata connects the cells
43
Q

digestion

A

The breakdown of food to pass across the plasma membrane
> absorbed in the walls of the intestines

44
Q

egestion

A

food which isn’t absorbed that passes through the body
> faeces

45
Q

excretion

A

removal of metabolic waste
> liver

46
Q

physical digestion

A
  • the physical breakdown of food
  • happens before chemical digestion
  • increases SA for enzymes to act- speeds up digestive process
47
Q

bile

A
  • digestive juice produced in the liver & stored in the gallbladder
  • not an enzyme
  • involved in physical breakdown of fats- emulsification
  • breaks up large fatty masses into small droplets
48
Q

chemical digestion

A
  • breaking apart of complex molecules into simple molecules using enzymes
    > protein based molecules that increase speed of chemical reactions
  • split food molecules = hydrolysis (hydro = water, lysis = split)
49
Q

3 major enzymes in chemical digestion

A
  • amylase (saliva): breaks down carbohydrates into sugars
  • protease: breaks down proteins in the stomach
  • lipases: break down lipids in small intestines
50
Q

extracellular chemical digestion

A
  • digestion = outside the cells
  • digested molecules are then absorbed
  • occurs in mammals and most other animals
51
Q

intracellular digestion

A
  • food engulfed into food vacuole
  • enzymes released for digestion
  • nutrients released straight into the cytosol
  • type and size of food that can be limits digestion
    > Single celled organisms + invertebrates (mussels, jellyfish and flatworms)
52
Q

3 types of diets in animals

A
  • herbivores: consume plants, spend most of the day eating
  • carnivores: consume other animals, spend little time eating
  • omnivores: consume plants and animals, humans spend 30-90 mins a day eating
53
Q

human digestive system

A

mouth –> oesophagus –> stomach –> liver –> small intestine –> duodenum –> large intestine

54
Q

mouth

A
  • physical digestion by teeth
  • chemical digestion via salivary amylase (break down carbs)
  • saliva coats food to protect oesophagus
  • food is swallowed and enters oesophagus
55
Q

swallowing

A
  • reflex triggered by back of tongue
  • epiglottis prevents food entering trachea (windpipe)
56
Q

oesophagus

A
  • peristalsis- wave of muscular contractions
  • mucus produced but no enzymes!
  • oesophageal sphincter closes once food enters stomach
    > prevents food from moving back up
57
Q

stomach

A
  • mechanical digestion = stomach churns food
  • glands (stomach walls) secrete digestive juices that help chemically break down food
  • food and juices now called chyme
  • glands in the stomach also secrete mucus to protect the stomach lining from acid wear.
58
Q

digestive juices

A
  • hydrochloric acid
  • pepsinogen
  • gastric lipase
59
Q

liver (digestive function)

A
  • regulating metabolism
  • removing toxins
  • processing nutrients
  • storing excess glucose as glycogen
  • producing bile for mechanical breakdown of fats
60
Q

gallbladder/pancreas

A

gallbladder: stores bile released into small intestine
pancreas: produces digestive enzymes- activated once food enters the duodenum
- hormones = insulin and glucagon (regulates sugar levels in blood)

61
Q

small intestine

A
  • primary nutrient exchange organ = thin & large SA
  • lining is one cell thick- rapid nutrient transfer
  • villi and microvilli increases SA:V and high blood supply
    > helps SI to exchange materials faster across the membrane
62
Q

duodenum

A
  • receives small amounts of chyme from stomach & pancreatic enzymes, intestinal enzymes and bile
    > bile: alkaline and neutralises stomach acids = favourable pH for enzyme action
63
Q

enzymes in the small intestine

A
  • complete digestion and allow for absorption
  • lipid-soluble molecules diffuse across PM easily
  • water-soluble molecules travels across membrane via facilitated diffusion or active transport (depending on conc. gradient)
  • most H2O absorbed across the PM osmotically
  • blood from intestines goes to liver first to deposit nutrients before the rest of the body
64
Q

large intestine

A
  • lacks enzymes
  • 5 parts: appendix, rectum, caecum, colon, anus
  • H2O and a few minerals are absorbed here
  • undigested waste materials are absorbed
  • stools form –> expelled via anus
  • thin, easily stretched walls –> movement of digested food not as effective
65
Q

nature of wastes

A

CO2:
- break down of carbs and lipids = transpiration
- CO2 released via respiratory system
Nitrogenous waste:
- break down of protein - contains amino acids
- nitrogenous part broken off
- ammonia- toxic
- detoxified to urea - low toxicity

66
Q

mammalian kidney

A
  • 2 kidneys at back of abdominal cavity
  • filters blood and reabsorbs useful substances –> blood vessels form a filtrate
  • blood flow always high (~25% blood flow)
    > enters from the aorta via renal artery
    > leaves via renal vein
  • urine formed in the kidney, drained via ureters into the bladder, released via urethra
    URINE = passive filtration, selective reabsorption, secretion
  • functions carried out by nephrons
67
Q

nephrons

A
  • ~1000000
  • nephron composed of a:
    > bowman’s capsule
    > tubular region
    –> proximal convoluted tubule
    –> loop of Henle
    –> distal convoluted tubule
68
Q

components of kidneys

A
  • 2 components (outer cortex and inner medulla)
  • glomerulus = looping capillaries found in the cortex
  • contain pores (fenestrae) = filtering of small particles
  • podocyte cells line regulate protein filtration
69
Q

filtration

A
  • across glomerulus into bowman’s capsule
  • high blood pressure in glomerulus blood vessels force fluid through capillaries, into bowman’s capsule
  • water and small molecules pass
  • blood and large blood proteins = glomerular capillaries
  • RBC/large proteins in urine = broken filtration system
    > blood leaking from glomerulus into Bowman’s capsule, result of high blood pressure or damaged glomerular capillary
70
Q

reabsorption

A
  • occurs along the nephron
  • amino acids, sodium chloride & glucose reabsorbed
  • active transport- lots of energy
  • water reabsorbed passively via osmosis
  • loop of Henle - production of concentrated urine
71
Q

secretion

A
  • active removal of particular substances by cells in tubule wall
  • added to filtrate as it passes through nephron
72
Q

liver (excretory function)

A
  • maintains stable internal enviro
  • prepares substances for excretion
    > detoxifies harmful chemicals
    > breaks down amino acids –> ammonia –> urea
  • waste products travel to kidneys for excretion
73
Q

hormones

A
  • specific chemical messengers produced by an organism
  • released from glands
74
Q

endocrine system

A
  • made up of glands and organs which synthesise and secrete hormones
  • blood transports hormones to target cells
75
Q

pituitary gland

A
  • base of the brain and the ‘master gland’
  • produces many hormones
  • involved in a range of cellular functions
    > growth, lactation, kidney function, regulation of thyroid and adrenal glands
  • secretes hormones via exocytosis
76
Q

hypothalamus

A
  • above the pituitary gland
  • detects internal stimuli and maintains internal optimal conditions
  • hormones released regulate specific hormone production in pituitary gland
77
Q

digestion of cellulose

A
  • cellulose =component of cell wall
  • too large to be absorbed
  • enzyme cellulase needed to digest it (only produced in some herbivores)
  • organisms who don’t produce cellulase undergo mutualism with bacteria that produce cellulase
  • bacteria provided with nutrients & organism provided with cellulase
78
Q

hindgut fermenters

A
  • fermentation in the caecum (where small & large intestine join)
  • after small intestine (high SA absorption)
  • limitation : cellulose not fully absorbed
79
Q

foregut fermenters

A
  • fermentation is before the stomach in the rumen
    1. food regurgitated to mouth = further physical digestion (rumination)
    2. moved to the rumen for chemical digestion
  • pro = full absorption
  • con = takes a long time

Biology (8 decks)

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