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fruit and veg 2 Flashcards

1
Q

benefits of providing shelter for trees in apple orchard (6)

A

 Reduced wind speed resulting in less physical damage to trees i.e. broken branches, fallen fruit and wind scorch
 Improved pollination as bees do not fly in windy conditions
 Reduced wind speed reduces excess transpiration and water loss
 Provides warmer temperatures for ripening fruit
 Reduced wind speed may reduce damage from wind frost
 Encourages beneficial wildlife

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2
Q

plants suitable for use as a living windbreak in a fruit garden

A 
Fagus sylvatica
Crataegus monogyna
Carpinus betulus
x Cuprocyparis leylandii
Taxus baccata
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3
Q

Describe how soil texture and structure influence the timing of soil cultivation

A

Soil texture:
Sandy soils can be cultivated throughout the year but spring is preferable to avoid the leaching of nutrients.
Clay soils are best cultivated in late summer/early autumn to enable the frosts to break down clods. Clay soils should not be cultivated when wet, waterlogged or frozen to avoid damage to the soil structure.
Soil Structure:
Sandy soils are very free draining and therefore compaction is less of a problem in winter. Tilth production may result in soil surface capping after heavy rain or the use of irrigation.
The structure of a clay soil is easily damaged by poorly timed cultivations and so should be cultivated in late summer/early autumn. When clay soils are wet or waterlogged the clay particles smear easily and compaction occurs.

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4
Q

describe single digging (3)

A
  1. a primary cultivation technique which involves digging to one spade (spit) deep.
  2. The soil is inverted to bury the weeds and allow organic matter to be incorporated.
  3. It is carried out in the autumn on heavy clay soils to allow the frost to break down the aggregates (clods).
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5
Q

describe tilth production (5)

A
  1. a secondary cultivation technique to create a fine crumb structure for seed sowing or planting.
  2. It involves the soil being roughly levelled by raking in two directions to break down the large aggregates.
  3. The soil is then consolidated (firmed) using feet or a roller to remove large air pockets prior to
  4. finally raking in two directions to create a fine level surface.
  5. The soil should not be worked when it is wet.
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6
Q

effect of plant spacing on root vegetable crops. give examples (5)

A
  1. eg carrot, beetroot, parsnip, radish
  2. Normally, optimum plant spacing is critical to achieve uniform growth and maximum yield
  3. Close spacing results in competition for light, water and nutrients
  4. Plants are more susceptible to attack by pests and diseases when planted too close
  5. Excessive plant spacing wastes potential cropping area
  6. for baby vegetables eg carrots or beetroot, sow thinly and space at minimal intervals. Alternatively, the thinning can be used as baby veg.
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7
Q

describe intercropping

A

the growing of a quick maturing crop between rows of a slower maturing crop e.g. radish growing between parsnip to make the most of the cropping area. The fast maturing crop is harvested before the slower crop matures.

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8
Q

describe successional cropping

eg Radish ‘French Breakfast’

A
  1. the sowing of crops e.g. lettuce, radish, spinach at intervals of two to three weeks in the same area to ensure a regular supply of the crop.
  2. This also extends the cropping season and prevents gluts.
  3. protection can be used (fleece, polythene) and soil
    warming to further extend season.
  4. planting dates; choice of cultivars
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9
Q

Describe the soil prep for production of a crop of leeks (3)

A
  1. The soil is single or double dug in the autumn/winter prior to sowing/planting to relieve any soil compaction.
  2. Bulky organic matter is incorporated and fertiliser with a high nitrogen content can be applied one month prior to transplanting the leeks at a rate of 70-100g/m2.
  3. Secondary cultivation is carried out prior to transplanting and includes; levelling the soil, consolidation and the creation of the final tilth by raking.
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10
Q

Describe the method of sowing for for production of a crop of leeks (3)

A
  1. Seeds can be sown under cover from mid to late winter in a greenhouse.
  2. The seeds can be sown 1-2cm deep in seed trays or 3-4 seeds per module using a seed sowing or multi-purpose compost. The seeds are covered with compost and watered.
  3. Outdoors, seeds can be sown from early to mid-spring in a prepared seed bed.
  4. The seeds are sown thinly in drills 1-2cm deep and 15cm apart.
  5. The seeds are covered with soil and watered.
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11
Q

describe how you transplant leeks (8)

A
  1. Leeks can be transplanted individually when they are pencil thick and 20cm in height.
  2. The tops of the plants and the roots can be trimmed before planting.
  3. Holes are made using a dibber 15-23cm apart and 15-20cm deep with rows 30-40cm apart.
  4. A single leek is dropped into each hole which is then filled with water. The soil is allowed to back fill naturally around the transplant to create a blanched stem.
  5. The bed is irrigated/watered prior to transplanting.
    Modules are watered well before planting.
  6. The modules containing 3-4 leeks are planted deeply by digging a hole with a trowel.
  7. They are planted 30cm apart in the row and 30cm between the rows.
  8. The leeks are watered well after planting.
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12
Q

when is the optimum time to prune a plum tree

A

plums are pruned during late spring/summer to avoid infection from the fungal disease silver leaf

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13
Q

describe how to fan train a plum

A
  1. A maiden whip or feathered maiden is planted 15-23cm away from a wall or fence which is fitted with horizontal wires 15cm apart.
  2. The aim is to create a fan shape which is achieved by removing the central leader to concentrate vigour on both sides of the tree.
  3. The laterals are cut back to strong buds to encourage side shoots (‘ribs’) which are tied in at an angle of 45° and gradually lowered to the horizontal
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14
Q

what is top fruit

A

fruit that grows on a tree

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15
Q

what is soft fruit

A

fruit that grows on bushes/shrubs/canes/vines and herbaceous plants

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16
Q

factors to be considered when selecting cultivars of soft fruit (8)

A 
 Selection of early, mid or late season cultivars
 Flavour
 Storage capability
 Pest and disease resistance
 Culinary or dessert cultivars
 Certified stock
 Yield
 Vigour/ultimate size of plant
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17
Q

how does susceptibility to frost affect the suitability of a site selection for outdoor food production (4)

A
  1. Susceptibility of a site to frost can cause frost damage to fruit buds and flowers, which can mean reduced yields
  2. seedlings can be killed
  3. sowing times are delayed as the soil is slow to warm up in the spring
  4. frost pockets at the base of a slope must be avoided.
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18
Q

how does soil pH affect the suitability of a site selection for outdoor food production (5)

A
  1. Most crops will grow on a soil with a pH of 6.5 – 7.0 although some require a more specific pH.
  2. Blueberries prefer an acidic soil whereas brassicas require an alkaline soil to avoid club root.
  3. Although potatoes prefer a slightly acidic soil they will grow well in a neutral to slightly alkaline soil.
  4. Potatoes can be affected by potato scab in very alkaline soils.
  5. Problems with nutrient uptake can occur in soils with a low or high pH e.g. lime induced chlorosis in ericaceous plants that are grown in an alkaline soil.
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19
Q

how does a slope affect the suitability of a site selection for outdoor food production (6)

A
  1. If a site selected for outdoor food production is on a slope there could be problems with soil erosion
  2. it may be difficult to work
  3. dry at the top and wet at the bottom with run off which could lead to a build-up of nutrients at the base of the slope.
  4. The top of the site would be exposed to wind
  5. the aspect would affect how quickly the site warms up in the spring.
  6. A south facing slope will warm up quickly whereas a north facing slope will be colder.
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20
Q

materials used to construct the framework of a raised bed

A 
Timber planks
scaffold boards
bricks
blocks
new railway sleepers
thrown soil
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21
Q

state a spec of a raised bed and path

A

Width – 1.2 – 1.6m
Length – 2.5 – 3m
Path – 0.5m wide (Can be up to 1m wide for wheelchair access)

(Beds not more than 1.5m width, 3m length,
paths (approx.) 0.5m wide.)

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22
Q

Describe the ‘no-dig’ system for managing raised beds (8)

A

 The soil is not turned over apart from the initial cultivation.
 Soil improvers/bulky organic matter are spread thickly on the surface of the
soil.
 Soil organisms incorporate the organic matter etc. into the soil.
 Maintains soil structure.
 Avoids compaction of the soil.
 Soil erosion is reduced.
 Encourages biotic/organism diversity.
 Weed seed is not brought to the surface.

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23
Q

name a carrot pest and its control measure/s

A 
carrot root fly
60cm high barrier
sow thinly to avoid thinning
thin crop in evening
use of resistant cultivars
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24
Q

name a lettuce pest and control measure/s

A 
slug
Hand removal
slug pellets e.g. ferric phosphate
beer traps
water soil with nematode i.e. Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita
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25
Q

name a runner bean pest and control measures

A

black bean aphid
Spray with Fatty Acids, Deltamethrin, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Cypermethrin
(or squish or jet of water or pinch out tops)

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26
Q

name a radish pest and control measure

A

flea beetle
Spray with Deltamethrin, Lambda- cyhalothrin, Cypermethrin
cover seedlings/plants with Enviromesh

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27
Q

name a brussels sprouts pest and control measure

A

large cabbage white caterpillar

Encourage starlings to eat the larvae
cover crop with Enviromesh before the butterfly lays the eggs,
Use of a biological control e.g. Apantales glomeratus.

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28
Q

name some main crop potato cultivars

A 
Cara
Desiree
King Edward
Maris Piper
Pentland Crown
Sarpo Mira
Majestic
29
Q

describe how to harvest main crop potatoes (5)

A
  1. Harvesting is carried out from August – October
  2. on a dry, sunny day when the haulm has started to dry and collapse.
  3. The potatoes are carefully lifted using a fork, avoiding spearing the potatoes.
  4. It is important to ensure that no potatoes are left in the soil to prevent the occurrence of disease in the future.
  5. Potatoes can be left on the surface of the soil for 2-3 hours to dry
30
Q

describe how to store main crop potatoes (3)

A
  1. Potatoes should be stored in hessian sacks or double thickness paper sacks
  2. in a cool, dark, frost and vermin free environment.
  3. Diseased or damaged tubers should not be stored
31
Q

strawberry cultivars

A 
‘Cambridge Favourite’
‘Elsanta’
‘Malling Centenary’
‘Christine’
‘Florence’
32
Q

how to plant strawberries (6)

A
  1. Strawberry plants should be soaked well before planting.
  2. They are planted in August/September or in the spring
  3. in a sunny, sheltered situation with humus rich fertile, well-drained soil.
  4. The plants are planted 40 – 50cm apart in the row with 60 – 90cm between the rows.
  5. The crown of the plant should be above soil level to avoid rotting
  6. and the plants must be firmed in well to prevent frost heave and drying out
33
Q

how to harvest strawberries (4)

A
  1. Strawberries are harvested when the fruits are pink/red all over on a dry day.
  2. The fruits are picked carefully to avoid bruising by pinching the stalk between the fingers to ensure that the calyx is intact and not by twisting.
  3. Any damaged or mouldy fruits are discarded.
  4. It is important not to pile too many fruits on top of each other to avoid bruising/crushing.
34
Q

diploid apple cultivars

A

‘James Grieve’
‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’
‘Egremont Russet’
‘Discovery’

35
Q

triploid apple cultivars

A

‘Bramley’s Seedling’
‘Blenheim Orange’
‘Jupiter’
‘Suntan’

36
Q

cross-pollination of apple crops: Flowering periods (6)

A
  1. For successful cross-pollination it is necessary to grow apple cultivars that have the same flowering periods.
  2. These may be early, mid or late season cultivars and can be divided into seven flowering groups.
  3. Early cultivars/flowering groups can be cross-pollinated by other early cultivars or by mid-season cultivars as they overlap.
  4. Mid-season cultivars/flowering groups can be cross-pollinated by all three seasonal cultivars as they overlap.
  5. Late cultivars can be cross-pollinated by other late season cultivars/flowering groups and by mid-season cultivars/flowering groups as they overlap.
  6. Crab apples are universal pollinators of apple trees as they flower over a long period.
37
Q

cross-pollination of apple crops: compatibility (3)

A
  1. Apple trees are not reliably self-fertile and need other apple cultivars flowering in the same period to cross-pollinate.
  2. Apple cultivar pollen is only compatible with other apple cultivars.
  3. Triploid cultivars are incompatible with each other and are poor pollinators as their pollen is sterile. They require two diploid cultivars for cross-pollination to take place.
38
Q

State the benefits and limitations of living and nonliving windbreaks (5 and 4)

A

the characteristics of effective living windbreaks:

  1. can filter winds effectively
  2. but take up space,
  3. encourage beneficial organisms
  4. but can also harbour pests and diseases,
  5. require time to establish and need to be maintained;

non-living windbreaks:

  1. take less space
  2. but require more frequent replacement
  3. instantly effective
  4. not quite the same habitat benefits for biodiversity, natural predators etc, although might create invertebrate habitat eg open structured wall
39
Q

methods used to advance and extend the productive season of outdoor food crops

A

including: the use of polythene, mulches, fleece, ‘enviromesh’, low tunnels, cloches and cold frames.

methods used to warm soil to allow early sowing; to protect crops against spring frosts and bring on tender vegetables for planting out; and to allow late crops to continue under protection.

40
Q

benefits and limitations of crop rotation (3 and 4)

A

Benefits

  1. avoidance of pest and disease build-up in beds
  2. effective use of nutrients in soil.
  3. avoidance of pesticides and herbicides which might contribute to preserving natural balance

Limitations:

  1. only effective against soil borne P&D
  2. not effective against non-specific P&D
  3. the amount of space required and commitment
  4. restriction of choice.
41
Q

how to extend growing season with cloches etc

A

Cloches, polythene or other forms of protection can be put in place to warm the soil several weeks before sowing, and removed once the young plants are growing strongly

42
Q

dessert apples

A

‘Beauty of Bath’
‘James Grieve’
‘Discovery’

43
Q

culinary apples

A

‘Lord Derby’
‘Grenadier’
‘Bramley’s Seedling’

44
Q

what is a ‘cut and come again’ vegetable

A

a vegetable, normally a salad leaf, where harvesting the young leaves when you need them prevents plants from maturing and ensures several harvests of small, tender, mild-flavoured leaves over a long period of time, eg baby spinach and lettuce, mizuna, rocket, basil

45
Q

name an onion pest

symptoms and control measures

A

larvae of the onion fly

they feed on the bulb and cause leaves to yellow
and die.

No effective cure, so remove and destroy infected plants. The problem can be prevented by growing under horticultural fleece.

46
Q

name a potato pest

symptoms and control measures

A

long-keeled slugs

tunnelling into the tubers

Charlotte potatoes are resistant 
or nematodes (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita) watered into the soil between spring-autumn which enter slugs' bodies and infect them with bacteria that cause a fatal disease.
47
Q

name a potato disease

symptoms and control measures

A

Potato blight

dark lesions on leaves, followed by foliage collapse

is the result of a fungal disease which spreads rapidly in warm humid summer weather

cut down the foliage before it gets too bad wait a couple of weeks for skins to harden, then harvest.
Infected foliage should be burnt if possible.

48
Q

name a beetroot disease

symptoms and control measures

A

rust

  • small, raised brown-red spots which appear on the underside of the leaves.
  • The disease will sap strength from the plant and result in malformed or small roots.
  • ensure air circulation especially in damp conditions.
  • Pick off any infected leaves (or parts of them) and burn them.
  • spray an appropriate fungicide
49
Q

name a beetroot pest

symptoms and control measures

A

wireworm

Small holes 2-3 mm across are seen on the outside of the tuber or root. A network of tunnels is often invaded and enlarged by other pests such as slugs or woodlice. Further bacterial and fungal rots may develop making them unsuitable for storage.

  • handpick as you see them
  • encourage natural predators eg birds and other beetles who will eat them, birds especially on newly cultivated ground
50
Q

name a courgette pest

symptoms and control measures

A

Slugs and snails can be a problem for young plants seedlings which can eat entire plants very quickly.

Individual plants may be surrounded by a protective mulch of sharp grit, sharp sand, ash, hardwood sawdust or other abrasive material.

slug pellets

51
Q

name a courgette disease

symptoms and control measures

A

Cucumber mosaic virus

yellowing and mottling of the leaves.

There is no cure, so infected plants should be destroyed.

spread by aphids, so controlling these, by spraying them with a suitable insecticide asap. An alternative is to blast the insects off the foliage with a jet of water

52
Q

runner bean disease

symptoms and control measures

A

Anthracnose

a fungal disease which causes brown spots and pits to develop on pods, stems and leaves, and which in severe
cases will kill the plant.

good hygiene - tidy up dead material and destroy to prevent spread or overwintering

53
Q

name a carrot disease

symptoms and control measures

A

Motley dwarf virus

causes plants to become yellow and stop growing.

  • It is spread by aphids, so immediate control of infestation is important.
  • The use of fleece against carrot root fly will also help prevent aphid attack.
54
Q

describe maintenance pruning of a spur bearing apple tree (4)

A
  1. in winter, prune new growth on branch leaders (tips) by 1/3
  2. thin spurs if congested
  3. remove crossing branches,
  4. remove dead, diseased or unproductive shoots or very vigorous upright ‘water’ shoots
55
Q

how to maintain blackcurrants, redcurrant and gooseberries in terms of pruning

A
  1. prune annually to maximise production of fruit
  2. generally removing around a third of the bush
  3. taking out older, badly-shaped or diseased wood,
    and cutting back fruiting branches.
56
Q

base or top dressings for soft and top fruit (5)

A
  1. fruit plants on poorer soils can be fed using either base or top dressings.
  2. A base dressing will be applied at planting time.
  3. Many growers mulch their fruit plants in spring using compost or well-rotted manure which acts as a slow release top dressing.
  4. If a specific nutrient is known to be lacking, then this can be applied as a top dressing.
  5. When top dressing fruit trees, feed or compost should be spread out just beyond the furthest branches.
57
Q

how to maintain blackcurrants, redcurrant and gooseberries in terms of pruning (3)

A
  1. prune annually to maximise production of fruit
  2. generally removing around a third of the bush
  3. taking out older, badly-shaped or diseased wood,
    and cutting back fruiting branches.
58
Q

how to maintain blackcurrants, redcurrant and gooseberries in terms of pruning , on a multi-stemmed bush (3)

A
  1. prune older growth hard annually to maximise production of fruit by encouraging strong young shoots to grow from ground level.
  2. generally removing around a third of the bush
  3. taking out older, badly-shaped or diseased wood,
    and cutting back fruiting branches.
59
Q

production of blackcurrants:

ground prep, planting, pruning, feeding, pest and disease control (10)

A
  1. Remove all perennial weeds
  2. then incorporate into the planting area 5cm (2in) dressing of bulky organic material, such as manure based soil conditioner or garden compost. This is particularly important on light soils.
  3. Just before planting, fork in a compound fertiliser such as Growmore at 85g per m² (3oz per sq yd).
  4. Plant bare root plants between October and March, but it is generally best to avoid planting in the middle of winter when the soil is either wet or frozen.
  5. Plant both container-grown and bare-root bush plants 5cm (2in) deeper than previously planted; look for the nursery soil mark at base. This will encourage strong shoot development from the base.
  6. Space plants 1.5-1.8m (5-6ft) apart, using the wider spacing for vigorous cultivars.
  7. When planting in autumn to early spring cut all shoots back to 2.5cm (1in) above soil level in order to achieve strong growth from the base.
  8. Feed annually with a general fertilizer, such as Growmore at 100g per square metre (3oz per sq yd) in spring. Follow feeding with mulching around the base, using a 5cm (2 in) deep layer of organic mulch such as manure-based soil conditioner or garden compost.
  9. water at ground level to avoid getting water on leaves
  10. install a bird cage
60
Q

production of bare root blackcurrants:

ground prep, planting, pruning, feeding, pest and disease control (10)

A
  1. Remove all perennial weeds
  2. then incorporate into the planting area 5cm (2in) dressing of bulky organic material, such as manure based soil conditioner or garden compost. This is particularly important on light soils.
  3. Just before planting, fork in a compound fertiliser such as Growmore at 85g per m² (3oz per sq yd).
  4. Plant bare root plants between October and March, but it is generally best to avoid planting in the middle of winter when the soil is either wet or frozen.
  5. Plant both container-grown and bare-root bush plants 5cm (2in) deeper than previously planted; look for the nursery soil mark at base. This will encourage strong shoot development from the base.
  6. Space plants 1.5-1.8m (5-6ft) apart, using the wider spacing for vigorous cultivars.
  7. When planting in autumn to early spring cut all shoots back to 2.5cm (1in) above soil level in order to achieve strong growth from the base.
  8. Feed annually with a general fertilizer, such as Growmore at 100g per square metre (3oz per sq yd) in spring. Follow feeding with mulching around the base, using a 5cm (2 in) deep layer of organic mulch such as manure-based soil conditioner or garden compost.
  9. water at ground level to avoid getting water on leaves
  10. install a bird cage
61
Q

how to plant raspberries (8)

A
  1. select summer and autumn varieties for longest cropping period
  2. plant during dormancy, November and March, but not frozen or waterlogged.
  3. train along post and wire
  4. clear the site of perennial weeds
  5. Dig over the site and add a bucket of well rotted farmyard manure per square metre and a general fertiliser such as Growmore or fish blood and bone at 90g per sq m (3oz per sq yard).
  6. Space the plants around 45-60cm apart if planting in rows.
  7. Top with 7.5cm mulch of organic matter in late autumn to late winter (Nov-Feb)
  8. Prune the canes to within 25cm of the ground after planting, unless you have summer fruiting rapsberries which are one year old canes (long canes). Don’t prune these as they’ll fruit for you that season.
62
Q

how to plant raspberries (8)

A
  1. select summer and autumn varieties for longest cropping period
  2. plant during dormancy, November and March, but not frozen or waterlogged.
  3. train along post and wire
  4. clear the site of perennial weeds
  5. Dig over the site and add a bucket of well rotted farmyard manure per square metre and a general fertiliser such as Growmore or fish blood and bone at 90g per sq m (3oz per sq yard).
  6. Space the plants around 45-60cm apart if planting in rows.
  7. Top with 7.5cm mulch of organic matter in late autumn to late winter (Nov-Feb)
  8. Prune the canes to within 25cm of the ground after planting, unless you have summer fruiting rapsberries which are one year old canes (long canes). Don’t prune these as they’ll fruit for you that season.
63
Q

how to harvest and store raspberries (5)

A
  1. when the fruit is soft, sweet-tasting and comes off easily.
  2. They cannot be stored more than a few days, but can be frozen or processed into jam etc.
  3. Harvesting needs to be frequent, every few days.
  4. ideally on a dry day
  5. blemish-free and healthy fruit ideally
64
Q

how to harvest and store blackberries (5)

A
  1. when the fruit is consistently black and slightly soft.
  2. Sometimes pruning can be combined with harvesting making it easier.
  3. Blackcurrants are usually cooked or processed into jam soon after harvesting.
  4. ideally on a dry day
  5. blemish-free and healthy fruit ideally
65
Q

how to harvest and store plums (5)

A
  1. when the fruit is soft, sweet-tasting and comes off easily.
  2. They cannot be stored, only frozen or processed into jam, compote etc.
  3. Plums for eating should be hand-picked or by using a long-handled fruit picker. Plums for processing can be harvested by laying out a sheet beneath the tree and shaking.
  4. ideally on a dry day
  5. blemish-free and healthy fruit ideally
66
Q

how to harvest and store apples (5)

A
  1. when the flavour is sweet rather than sour
  2. fruit comes off the tree easily, simply by lifting the fruit. 3. Dessert apples can be harvested slightly under-ripe as they will ripen on keeping; slightly under-ripe fruit also keeps better.
  3. Cooking apples can be harvested when the first few begin to fall, and before the first frosts.
  4. Fruit should be handled carefully to avoid bruising;
    bruised fruit needs to be gathered along with the windfalls and used as quickly as possible or processed into juice or compote.
  5. Fruit needs ideally needs to be stored at 3-7°C in dark, dry conditions.
  6. Good air movement, such as provided by slatted shelves helps.
  7. Keeping fruit separate stops rots jumping from fruit to
    fruit – including wrapping in newspaper to separate them.
  8. keep different varieties separately, as ripening mid-season fruit can prematurely ripen later-season ones.
  9. Some varieties will keep into early spring.
67
Q

vegetables that can be stored in the ground and harvested when needed (6)

A 
winter cabbage
Brussels sprouts
carrots,
leeks
beetroot
kale

onions are always lifted!
potatoes are ruined below 0C

68
Q

what conditions are require for vegetable storage esp. carrots, parsnips, turnips, beetroot and
potatoes (4)

A 
1. hold the crop at a low temperature, so reducing
respiration and therefore deterioration
2. prevent freezing
3. keep dry and well ventilated
4. dark
69
Q

how to prune raspberries (maintenance)

A
  1. Cut back fruited canes to ground level after harvesting in summer, without leaving a stub
  2. Select the strongest young canes, around six to eight per plant, and tie them in 10-15cm (4-6in) apart along the wire supports
  3. Remove the remaining young stems at ground level
  4. Loop longer canes over the top wire and tie them in.
  5. in February, trim the long canes to a bud about 10cm (4in) above the top wire

hort exams (6 decks)

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