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from chromosomes to genomes Flashcards

chapter 6, unit 2 AOS 1, + year 10 DNA recap

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1
Q

DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid​

A

DNA is the same in all organisms – it consists of the same 4 bases (A, G, T, C)​
The information encoded by DNA directs how cells, tissues, and whole organisms are to be built and how they will function​

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2
Q

DNA Structure

A

Double Helix –Twisted ladder made of a sugar-phosphate backbone (sides of the ladder) and nitrogenous bases (rungs of the ladder)​

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3
Q

nucleotides

A

the basic building block of DNA, made up of a
five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base
-A nitrogenous base (A, G, T, C)​

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4
Q

Nitrogen bases

A

Make up the rungs of the twisted ladder​
4 types​, Adenine​, Guanine, Thymine​, Cytosine​

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5
Q

Genes

A

Genes are a sections of coding DNA that code for a specific protein in the body​, Only about 1% of all DNA actually codes for something! We call this “coding DNA” and it comprises all of our genes​

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6
Q

Alleles

A

different versions of genes, eg. eye colour, freckles or no freckles

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7
Q

Genome

A

-sum of all an organism’s DNA​
-measured by the number of base pairs contained in a sex cell (sperm or egg cell)​

​

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8
Q

Heredity

A

the study of inheritance; the genetic transmission
of characteristics from one generation to another

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9
Q

histone

A

a protein around which DNA winds in eukaryotic
cells

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10
Q

chromosome

A

is comprised of DNA molecules that physically carry genes from one generation to the next

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11
Q

genomics

A

the study of the genome – how genes interact with each other and the environment, and the resultant proteins produced; it requires a knowledge of an organism’s entire DNA sequence, so studies rely on powerful sequencing technologies and bioinformatics

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12
Q

Proteomics

A

the study of the entire protein content produced by a cell, tissue or organism

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13
Q

why does DNA Replicate?

A

So that all newly created cells have a copy of the instructions they need to create proteins​

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14
Q

how does DNA replicate

A

Enzymes! Enzymes unzip the two strands of DNA and add complementary bases to create 2 new double-stranded molecules of DNA​

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15
Q

DNA helicase

A

unzips double stranded DNA as it moves along the DNA.​

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16
Q

DNA polymerase

A

adds complementary nucleotides to unzipped DNA strands​

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17
Q

DNA ligase

A

joins Okazaki fragments of the lagging strand together​

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18
Q

Topoisomerase

A

rewinds DNA strands back up and prevents them from becoming tangled​

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19
Q

Getting started with DNA replication

A

Replication starts at the origin of replication , Helicase unzips DNA forming a replication fork.​

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20
Q

Unzipping the Double helix

A

Helicase unwinds DNA by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous base pairs​

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21
Q

Creating the new strands​

A

-An RNA primer binds to DNA, providing a place for DNA polymerase to bind. ​
-DNA polymerase starts adding complementary nucleotides to the each of the unwound strands.​

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22
Q

5’ and 3’

A

-“five prime” and “three prime”, indicates the carbon numbers in the DNA’s sugar backbone. ​
-The carbons are numbered from 1-5 in a clockwise direction after the oxygen​

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23
Q

ribosome

A

a small structure in all cells that builds amino acids
into complex proteins

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24
Q

protein

A

A molecule made up of amino acids. Proteins are needed for the body to function properly. They are the basis of body structures, such as skin and hair, and of other substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies

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25
Q

RNA – ribonucleic acid

A

RNA nucleotides contain a ribose sugar NOT a deoxyribose sugar like DNA​, when transcribing DNA to RNA, U is replaced by T

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26
Q

mRNA (messenger RNA)

A

carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes ​

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27
Q

tRNA (transfer RNA)

A

brings the amino acids to the ribosomes according to the codons on mRNA.​

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28
Q

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

A

forms the core of the ribosomes and catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids.​

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29
Q

transcription

A

The process of converting a DNA strand into an mRNA strand.​
Unlike DNA, mRNA contains only a single strand.​

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30
Q

transcription process

A

copying a gene’s DNA sequence to make an RNA molecule. RNA polymerase binds to DNA, separates the strands, then uses one strand as a template to assemble MRNA.​ Transcription has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.

31
Q

translation

A

translation is the production of a polypeptide (protein) using the information that is coded on the mRNA molecule.​

32
Q

translation process

A
  1. Ribosomes attach at 5’ end of mRNA and read mRNA in groups of 3 bases, called “codons”​
  2. tRNA (transfer RNA) – have complementary anticodons for the mRNA codon (opposite nucleotides) and carry an associated amino acid​
  3. Peptide bonds form between amino acids as ribosome moves along​
  4. When stop codon is reached the polypeptide is released​
33
Q

why is transcription necessary?

A

Transcription makes messenger RNA (MRNA) to carry the code for proteins out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. ​

34
Q

why is translation necessary?

A

Translation assures that the right amino acids are joined together by peptides to form the correct protein.​

35
Q

aneuploidy

A

a genome that has an additional or loss of a chromosome from a cell, include monosomy or trisomy

36
Q

autosome

A

a chromosome that is the same in both males and females that match together to make the 22 homologous pairs

37
Q

chiasmata

A

contact points between
chromatids of homologous chromosomes that may become sites for crossing over and recombination during meiosis

38
Q

diploid

A

having two haploid sets of chromosomes in each
cell, represented by 2n, human somatic cells have a diploid number of chromosomes (46)

39
Q

haploid

A

the condition of gametes having a single set of
chromosomes, represented by n
human gamete cells have a haploid number of chromosomes (23)

40
Q

homologous chromosomes

A

a matched pair of chromosomes with the same banding pattern and centromere position​

41
Q

hydrogen bond

A

weak molecular chemical bond

42
Q

karyotype

A

an image of all the chromosomes in a somatic cell​observed at late
prophase and metaphase

43
Q

non-disjunction

A

-homologous chromosomes (sister chromatids) fail to separate. ​
-In these cases, one gamete receives two of the same chromosome and the other gamete receives no copy. ​
-causes anueploidy

44
Q

sex chromosomes

A

the pair of chromosomes that determines the sex of an individual, female is XX and male is XY

45
Q

sex inked

A

describes genes that are found on the sex
chromosomes

46
Q

trisomy

A

the condition in which somatic cells contain three copies of a particular chromosome

47
Q

zygote

A

the diploid cell that results from the fusion of two
haploid gametes

48
Q

locus or loci

A

The location of a gene on a chromosome. In homologous chromosomes, the allele for each gene is found at exactly the same locus on each chromosome​, This gives homologous chromosomes the same banding patterns

49
Q

gamete

A

sex cell (sperm or egg cell)

50
Q

monosomy

A

loss of a chromosome, con only occur with the x sex chromosome

51
Q

trisomy

A

an extra chromosome

52
Q

non-coding DNA

A

A DNA that does not code for a protein but may have other functions in chromosome structure or regulating production of proteins from genes

53
Q

recombination

A

n breaking and rejoining of pieces of chromosome during crossing over leading to a new
combination of alleles in any resulting offspring

54
Q

zygote

A

the diploid cell that results from the fusion of two
haploid gametes

55
Q

meiosis

A

Meiosis is a process of cell division that occurs in the germ cells to create gametes (sperm and egg).​
a germ cell divides twice to produce four gametes containing half the original amount of genetic information

56
Q

meiosis 1

A

the first division of meiosis is called a ‘reduction’ division because it reduces (halves) the number of chromosomes in the nucleus ​
I.e. One chromosome from each homologous pair is donated to each intermediate cell ​

57
Q

stages of meiosis

A

interphase
-g1
-s phase
-g2 phase
prophase 1
metaphase 1
anaphase 1
telophase 1
prophase 2
metaphase 2
anaphase 2
telophase 2

58
Q

meiosis 2

A

The second division of meiosis is called a ‘mitotic’ division because it is similar to mitosis, as the chromosomes split into chromatids - except the resulting cells are haploid

59
Q

interphase: G1 phase

A

growth so that cells are big enough to divide

60
Q

interphase: S phase

A

synthesis- DNA doubles (46 to 92 chromosomes)

61
Q

Prophase 1

A

-chromosomes shortens and thicken
-Homologous chromosomes pair up
-crossing over and recombination occurs between homollogous chromosomes
-spindle forms

62
Q

metaphase 1

A

-homologous pairs align at the eqautor of the cell
-nuclear membrane disapears

63
Q

Anaphase 1

A

-the spindle fibres retract towards the poles pulling the homologous pairs to separate

64
Q

telophase 1

A

-nuclear membrane begins to reform
-cytokinesis occurs (cell divides)
-new nuclei have one member of each homologous pair but each chromosome consists of two chromatids

65
Q

prophase 2

A

-nuclear membrane breaks down
-spindle fibres reform and reconnect to the chromosomes

66
Q

metaphase 2

A

-the sister chromatids move to the equator of the spindle, and spindle fibres attach to the centromere of each chromosome

67
Q

Anaphase 2

A

-centromeres divide and chromatids separate
-sister chromatids spit apart and move to opposite poles

68
Q

telophase 2

A

-spindle breaks down
-nuclear membrane begins to reform
-cytokinesis occurs (cell divides into 2)

69
Q

law of segregation

A

half the gametes formed during meiosis contain one member of each gene pair and half contain the other member

70
Q

linked genes

A

Genes located close together on a chromosome, so they are inherited together
Arnt affected by crossing over, they don’t recombine because they are linked together

71
Q

law of independent assortment

A

genes on different homologous chromosomes separate independently into gametes during meiosis; the combination of genes (and alleles) that occurs in each gamete is therefore the result of chance

72
Q

Genetic Diversity

A

-The biological significance of meiosis is that it produces genetic variability among the offspring
-Recombination produces variation​
-gametes carry unique genetic combinations because of:​
Crossing over between homologous (matching) chromosomes. ​
Independent disjoining (separation) of non-matching chromosomes during meiosis. ​

73
Q

chromatid

A

is one of the two identical halves of a chromosome that has been replicated in preparation for cell division, two sister chromatids are joined together at the centromere to make a chromosome

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