FP - Psychological explanations of offending behaviour: Cognitive

Question 1

Cognitive distortion

Answer 1

Thinking that has a bias, such that what is perceived by a person does not match reality.

Question 2

Hostile attribution bias

Answer 2

When a person automatically attributes malicious intentions to another.

Question 3

Minimalisation (or minimisation)

Answer 3

Underplaying the consequence of an action to reduce negative emotions such as feeling guilty.

Question 4

Moral reasoning

Answer 4

Thinking in a consistent and logical way about right and wrong, with reference to socially agreed principles.

Question 5

What are distortions?

Answer 5

Ways that reality has become twisted so that what is perceived no longer represents what is actually true.

Question 6

What is the result of distortions?

Answer 6

A person’s perception of events is wrong but they think it is accurate.

Question 7

What do distortions allow an offender to do?

Answer 7

Deny or rationalise their behaviour.

Question 8

What are the two examples of cognitive distortions which are particularly relevant to crime?

Answer 8

Hostile attribution bias and minimisation.

Question 9

What is hostile attribution bias shortened to?

Answer 9

HAB

Question 10

What does HAB stand for?

Answer 10

Hostile attribution bias

Question 11

What does attribution refer to?

Answer 11

What we think when we observe someone’s actions and draw an inference about what it means.

Question 12

What is a hostile attribution bias?

Answer 12

When someone has a leaning towards always thinking the worst - e.g. someone smiles at you but you think that they are being aggressive/having bad thoughts about you.

Question 13

What do negative interpretations in HAB lead to?

Answer 13

More aggressive behaviour.

Question 14

In terms of criminal behaviour what is HAB linked to?

Answer 14

Increased levels of aggression.

Question 15

What are magnification and minimisation?

Answer 15

Cognitive distortions where the consequences of a situation are either over- or under-exaggerated.

Question 16

In the case of criminal behaviour what can minimisation explain?

Answer 16

How an offender may reduce any negative interpretation of their behaviour before of after a crime has been committed.

Question 17

What does minimisation help an offender to do and what does this mean?

Answer 17

Accept the consequences of their own behaviour and means that negative emotions can be reduced.

Question 18

Who came up with the theory of moral reasoning?

Answer 18

Kohlberg (1969)

Question 19

How did Kohlberg come up with his theory of moral reasoning?

Answer 19

He interviewed boys and men about the reasons for their moral decisions and constructed a stage theory of moral development.

Question 20

What does each stage in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development represent?

Answer 20

A more advanced form of moral understanding, resulting in a more logically consistent and morally mature form of understanding.

Question 21

How many levels of moral reasoning are there?

Answer 21

3

Question 22

How many stages is each level of moral reasoning divided into?

Answer 22

2

Question 23

How do people progress through the stages of moral development?

Answer 23

As a consequence of biological maturity and also as a consequence of having opportunities to discuss and develop their thinking, such as learning to take the perspective of another person.

Question 24

What are the points to be considered when discussing the link between Kohlberg’s theory of moral development and offending behaviour?

Answer 24

Longitudinal study (10% of adults reach the post-conventional level - Colby et al., 1983).

Criminals are likely to be at the pre-conventional level (Hollin et al., 2002)

Question 25

Explain the link between Kohlberg’s theory and offending behaviour found through Kohlberg’s longitudinal study

Answer 25

Found that 10% of adults reach the post-conventional level (Colby et al., 1983), so the most common level is the conventional level of moral reasoning.

Adults at the conventional level who break the law would feel that their behaviour was justified because it helps maintain relationships or society.

So, an offender might accept breaking the law to protect a member of his/her family or protecting other people.

Just under 20% of the children at age 10 were at stage one and about 60% of children were at stage 2 of the pre-conventional level.

Question 26

What stage are criminals likely to be at?

Explain the evidence and reasoning.

Answer 26

Criminals are likely to be at the pre-conventional level (Hollin et al., 2002).

They believe that breaking the law is justified of the rewards outweigh the costs or if punishment can be avoided.

Most people reach this stage around 10y/o. In Kohlberg’s longitudinal study, just under 20% of the children at age 10 were at stage one and about 60% of children were at stage 2 of the pre-conventional level.

Question 27

What does the idea that most people reach the pre-conventional level by age 10 fit the idea of?

Answer 27

Fits the idea of an ‘age of criminal responsibility’.

In England and Wales, children under 10 cannot be charged with a crime because it is believed that they don’t understand the idea of moral responsibility, i.e. they are thought to be at the pre-conventional level where they judge right and wrong only in terms of consequences rather than any principles of morality.

Question 28

What are the 3 levels of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?

Answer 28

Pre-conventional
Conventional
Post-conventional

Question 29

What are the 2 stages in the pre-conventional level?

Answer 29

Stage 1: Punishment (orientation) and obedience.

Stage 2: Instrumental purpose/reward orientation.

Question 30

Explain stage 1 of the pre-conventional level (punishment (orientation) and obedience)

Answer 30

Reasoning based on whether or not the act will lead to punishment.

Focuses on rules enforced by punishment.

Question 31

Explain stage 2 of the pre-conventional level (instrumental purpose/reward orientation)

Answer 31

Reasoning based on what is to be gained.

what counts as ‘right’ is defined by one’s own needs.

Question 32

What are the 2 stages in the conventional level?

Answer 32

Stage 3: Good boy/girl orientation.

Stage 4: Social order orientation.

Question 33

Explain stage 1 of the conventional level (good boy/girl orientation)

Answer 33

Reasoning based on what others expect.

What is ‘right’ is defined by what others expect.

Question 34

Explain stage 2 of the conventional level (social order orientation)

Answer 34

Reasoning based on doing duties as a citizen.

Question 35

What are the 2 stages in the post-conventional level?

Answer 35

Stage 5: Social contract and individual rights orientation.

Stage 6: Conscience orientation/universal ethical principles.

Question 36

Explain stage 1 of the post-conventional level (social contract and individual rights orientation)

Answer 36

Reasoning based on what is impartially right; democratic rules can be challenged if they infringe on the rights of others.

Individual rights may be more important than the law.

Question 37

Explain stage 2 of the post-conventional level (conscience orientation/universal ethical principles)

Answer 37

Reasoning based on one’s own ethical principles.

Universal ethical principles.

Question 38

What type of explanation is the cognitive ‘approach’?

Answer 38

Psychological explanation