Foreign policy in Afghanistan and China, 1880-1914

Question 1

Key events of the Second Anglo-Afghan war

Answer 1

• It was a response to an increasing Russian threat in the region; Disraeli declared war in November 1878, and General Roberts quickly won. A British ‘envoy’ was installed in July 1879, and the British persuade the Amir to let them control Afghan foreign policy.
• In July 1880, Ayub Khan rebelled and defeated the British at the battle of Maiwand, but British survivors then decisively defeat the Afghan forces when taking over Kandahar. With Ayub Khan quelled, Britain succeeded in creating a buffer between Russia and India, so the Anglo-Indian troops withdraw. Managed to install a pro-British Amir, Abdur Rahman Khan, so was kind of a success. Managed to secure influence over foreign policy.

Question 2

Second Anlgo-Afghan war: colonial policy strengthened British control

Answer 2

• General Roberts initially secures a victory very quickly, with a treaty by May 1879 (and only being launched in November 1878) – resistance clearly not that effective so seemingly a good idea
• Despite a loss at Maiwand to Ayub Khan, the British then regain control and win a decisive victory under General Roberts in 1880, resulting in the installation of a pro-British ruler, Abdur Rahman Khan.
• Britain manages to secure a level of influence over Afghan foreign policy, so the campaign successfully creates a buffer to protect India from Russian expansion.

Question 3

Second Anglo-Afghan war: Colonial policy weakened British control

Answer 3

• The British spent some £17m on the war, 3X the estimated cost – so needed to be really worth it in order for the campaign to be successful
• Britain has influence over policy but Afghanistan remains independent with full control over internal affairs – so it’s quite a lot of hassle for not much gain
• Russian threat over the region continues (i.e., British invasion doesn’t frighten Russia into complacency) – in 1885, the Russians capture Pandjeh, causing British troops to mobilize and prepare for an advance towards Kandahar (though both sides back down)

Question 4

Evidence of a continued Russian threat post-1880

Answer 4

• 1885: Russians capture Pandjeh, on the Russian border side of Afghanistan. British troops prepare for war and mobilise in India for a potential move towards Kandahar, but both sides back down and the situation ends up being solved diplomatically.
• 1899: rumours of Russian troop movements combined with their extension of a railway to Tashkent (which was within striking distance of Afghanistan) deepened Britain’s concerns.

Question 5

What do the British do in 1902 to strengthen control in Asia?

Answer 5

alliance with Japan to try and secure Britain’s defence of India, and an attempt to form one with the French.

Question 6

How did the invasion of Tibet weaken British control in Asia?

Answer 6

• 1903-4: invasion of Tibet lead by Lord Curzon, despite confirmation from the Russians that they had no interest in Tibet. The Anglo-Indian army advances till it reaches Lhasa, where primitively armed Tibetans are massacred by British machine-gun and artillery fire. There was no trace of Russians in Lhasa, so the British looked very bad and the campaign was condemned by Churchill, the Indian press, and in the commons – objectively a very bad strategic move as it made Britain look bad internationally, further convinced Indian nationalists of the selfish, exploitative nature of British colonial policy, and didn’t successfully quell any foreign threats (because there were none in the area)
• 1904: the treasury’s secret service secretly pay £400 to a Russian journalist for articles supporting British foreign policy – evidence of how huge a mistake it was; they have to completely reinvent the narrative to quell criticism

Question 7

How is the Second Opium War damaging to British control?

Answer 7

• 1856-8: a second opium war is fought between Britain and China, but this time with French help. It’s an attempt to force China to trade with Britain to its fullest potential and abandon its isolationist policy. Britain win, marching on Peking and prevailing – looting is very common (the summer palace in Peking is looted to find gifts for Victoria, then burned), making the British look bad, especially because their excuse for invading was the murder of a missionary (moral hypocrisy)

Question 8

How does the Second Opium war strengthen British influence in Asia?

Answer 8

• But Britain succeeds in opening up 5 more Chinese ports to British trade.
• The economic success of the war is evident in that in 1895, Britain enjoyed 2/3 of China’s foreign trade, and opium remained at the head of the list of China’s imports, resting at £10m a year.

Question 9

Causes of the Boxer rebellion

Answer 9

• Caused by a general feeling of anti-foreignness in China, especially now that several foreign powers (Germany, Japan etc) were trying to carve up the region into private spheres of influence
• There was also resentment of missionaries in China, many of whom were British: there were 1300 European missionaries in China by 1894

Question 10

How was the British response to the Boxer rebellion successful in securing control?

Answer 10

• In June 1898: Empress Tzu-hsi committed imperial troops to join 30,000 boxers in an attack on Peking
• Not that threatening because anti-imperialism wasn’t that popular or widespread: the Empress’s pro-boxer policy was swiftly rejected by the more realistic provincial mandarins.
• British forces could easily supress nationalism: In mid-August, an international army, 18,000 strong, entered Peking and relieved the legations.