Causes for Indian independence and partition

Question 1

1. Jinnah’s 14 points

Answer 1

(1928) – response to the Simon Commission (1927) in which Jinnah argues the British should give legal protection of minorities, not just sympathetic statements – clearly outlined the Muslim League’s political agenda, furthering Hindu-Muslim divisions and thus making partition more likely

Question 2

1. Lahore Resolution

Answer 2

(1940) – Jinnah publicly declares aim of creating a Muslim state (Pakistan) – radicalisation of the League’s demands makes it increasingly difficult for the British to find a solution for independence that doesn’t involve two separate states

Question 3

1. Simla conference

Answer 3

(1945) – Jinnah refuses to acknowledge the existence of other Muslim organisations – could’ve been a moment for real progress towards independence (there were delegates from Congress, the Muslim League and other smaller groups) BUT Jinnah’s obstinacy prevented this (another two years until solution found)

Question 4

“Direct Action Day”

Answer 4

(14th August 1946) – Jinnah’s response to Nehru’s comments at the press conference – led to horrific communal violence, with 10,000 injured and 4000 killed – Jinnah’s ambiguous calls for retaliation create near civil-war conditions, making both independence and partition more likely as Britain want to leave so that a civil war doesn’t break out under their supervision and make them morally responsible for violence

Question 5

2. A) First non-cooperation campaign

Answer 5

(1919-22)

Mass movement explicitly aiming for swaraj within one year.

Included boycotts of elections and schools (national disruption), and resulted in 30,000 arrests, including Gandhi (causes independence through exposing unjustified British repression on an international level AND forcing the British to make political concessions through disrupting the functionality of the Raj)

Membership of INC increases to 2m during time period

Called off in February 1922 after the Chauri-Chaura incident where 22 policemen were burned to death

Question 6

2. A) Salt March

Answer 6

(set off March 12th 1930) – Gandhi marched 240 miles to Dandi with 78 supporters against the 1882 Salt Act – results in Britain arresting over 80,000 Indians, bringing international attention to their repressive rule of indigenous peoples because of heavy publicization – internationalisation of nationalist movement places pressure on Britain to quit India, and also Gandhi’s success in galvanising the population makes the British take Indian nationalists seriously (they initially thought the march was not that serious)

Question 7

2. A) Gandhi-Irwin Pact

Answer 7

(March 1931) – Gandhi halts civil disobedience movement and agrees to represent Congress at a second round table conference, and Irwin also agrees to release some prisoners and lift various restrictions, as well as pledging that all future political changes would be in the interest of India herself – effect is either…

A) making independence more likely because it shows serious diplomatic negotiation between Indians and the British – Gandhi’s stature is elevated to that equal to the viceroy
B) hinders nationalist progress as Gandhi calls of the campaign unnecessarily and doesn’t really gain any tangible political concessions from the British in response

Question 8

2. A) Second Round Table Conference

Answer 8

(September – December 1931) – Gandhi is the sole Congress representative, and argued that the untouchables and Muslims shouldn’t have separate electorates or special safeguards (this was rejected by the 3 other Muslim participants) – lays the foundations for partition as it was impossible for an agreement to be reached on the issue of political protection

Question 9

2. A) Gandhi’s fast until death

Answer 9

Gandhi starts a fast in protest to the subsequent Communal Award (1932), which set out rights to separate representation for Muslims and the untouchables – furthers Hindu-Muslim tension paving the way for Partition

Question 10

2. A) “Quit India” campaign

Answer 10

(1942) – launched on 8th August by Gandhi – campaign becomes very violent; Congress cadres murder 93 policemen and blow up 332 railway stations, possibly responding to Gandhi’s instruction ‘go out to die, not to live’ – leads to independence as the chaos proves to the British the necessity of getting out and negotiating the terms quickly

The British make over 100,000 arrests

Question 11

2. B) Reaction to papa Nehru’s report

Answer 11

(1928) – the report suggested reserved seats for Muslims on central councils in minority provinces, and baby Nehru thought this was too moderate – his radical stance furthers Hindu-Muslim divide

Question 12

2. B) Press conference

Answer 12

(1946) – responds to the Cabinet Mission’s proposal of a grouping system by predicting that Congress would ultimate dominate centrally, which triggers Jinnah’s call for a ‘Direct Action Day’ – this heightens the Hindu-Muslim divide (which seemed to be resolving) making partition more likely, but hinders nationalist progress as independence could’ve been achieved there and then

Question 13

Amritsar Massacre

Answer 13

(1919) – 376 civilians shot dead – turned Indians against the British as the idea of them as a civilising race was destroyed (e.g., triggers Gandhi’s 1919-21 non-cooperation campaign) – pre-undermines the Government of India Act

Question 14

British response to the Salt March

Answer 14

(1930) arresting over 80,000 including Gandhi – internationally embarrassed and condemned

Question 15

Cripps Mission

Answer 15

(1942) – offers full dominion status (with any province or princely state being able to opt out) but only after WWII – accepted by the League but rejected by Congress (wants immediate independence and doesn’t like the Muslim state idea

Question 16

“Quit India” repression

Answer 16

(1942) – over 100,000 arrests – response confirms Indian resentful attitudes towards the British, making independence even more likely and esp. in the near future

Question 17

Montagu Declaration

Answer 17

(1917) – suggests ultimately giving dominion status but without a specific timeline – gives false hope making political repression post WWI (e.g. Rowlatt Acts) seem hypocritical – arguably what causes the nationalist movements to take on such ambitious demands (swaraj then purna swaraj)

Question 18

Rowlatt Acts

Answer 18

(1919) – allows imprisonment of Indians suspected of nationalist activism WITHOUT trial – goes against principle of Montagu declaration so builds up resentment and presents the British as hypocritical

Question 19

1st Government of India Act/Montagu Chelmsford reforms

Answer 19

(1919) – dyarchy system – Indians have control of certain things at provincial level like education, but the British keep some provincial control as well as total central control – not giving Indian enough representation, so only radicalises the nationalist movement further

Question 20

Statute of Westminster

Answer 20

(1931) – dominions only connected to empire through the fact that they are formally under the rule of a monarch, but they can veto this through their legislative powers – essentially independent – global political concession made by Britain encourages Indian nationalists to continue pursuing dominion status

Question 21

WWI - Ireland

Answer 21

Britain focused on WWI so the turmoil in Ireland caught them by surprise and was harder to supress – (Easter Rising in 1916 to overthrow the republic, 1918 general election puts 73 sinnn fein MPs in power, Ireland given dominion status with the 1921 Anglo-Irish Treaty) – WWI diverts Britain’s military attention, enabling the success of the Home Rule in Ireleand and paving the way for Indian nationalism – Tilak and Annie Besant take the ‘Home Rule’ idea in their campaigns during WW1

Question 22

WWII - Bose

Answer 22

Bose, the leader of the Indian National Army, travels to Japan in 1943 where he builds his army to a force of around 20,000 – the army is sent into action against the British – WWII enables nationalists to align themselves with Britain’s foreign enemies

Question 23

WWII - Bengal Famine

Answer 23

(1943) – bad harvests mean death rate is twice as high as normal, with over a million deaths during 1943 – situation improved by mid-1944

Question 24

WWII - economics

Answer 24

Britain loses 2/3 of her pre-war export trade – German U boat attacks on British ships cause her to lose 11.7m tons of shipping during the war

Question 25

International pressure - charter

Answer 25

Atlantic Charter (1941) – signed by Britain and the USA, and included support for ‘sovereign rights and self-government’ – Britain has to adhere to these standards

Question 26

Impact of WWI - how did it further nationalism and resentment of the British

Answer 26

o 1.4 million volunteered for the army from India alone (made up 16.4% of all imperial soldiers, sailors and airmen) o Indian expeditionary force from Autumn 1914 played a key role in the campaign against the Ottomans o Over 62,000 Indians died in the conflict, prices rose sharply and there were food shortages o India contributed almost £146 million to the war effort o So… Indian sacrifice during WWI for the British cause is evident, so they would naturally want compensation in the form of political concessions

Question 27

What is evidence of resentment of the British during WWI

Answer 27

o Mutiny of Indian troops in November 1914, when a Baluchi regiment (Muslim) refused to fight the Turks – they may have been questioning why they were really fighting for the British, so WWI arguably fostered an even greater sense of Indian national unity and identity o West Indian volunteers keen to serve Britain, yet humiliated and angered by racial slights of those they served with, so mutinied in Taronto in December 1918 – so the racial hierarchy evident amongst troops during WWI created resentment of the British and fostered nationalism

Question 28

How did WWI actually show Indian loyalty?

Answer 28

o 1.4 million volunteered for the army from India alone, making up 16.4% of all imperial soldiers – evidently shows loyalty of Indians to the British

Question 29

What were direct and indirect consequences of WWI

Answer 29

o Lucknow Pact (1916): Hindus and Muslims agreed to the Lucknow Pact, promising to work together in the interests of the anti-British nationalist campaign. Hindus appeased Muslims by giving them reserved seats. So, WWI heightens nationalism to such an extent that Indians were willing (basically for the first time) to put aside their religious differences in order to effectively fight against the British. o Two campaigns for Home Rule were set up in 1916, one led by Tilak and one by Annie Besant. Tilak’s Home Rule League for India rapidly gained 32,000 members, showing how nationalism both became more serious in demands and also more widespread. Demanded Indian management of internal Indian affairs. o The Montagu Declaration (1917) – the militarily pressurising circumstances of WWI meant that the British had to make political concessions, or at least promise them in the future: promised ‘progressive realisation of responsible government in India as part of the British Empire’ in order to guarantee Indian support of the war effort. o Also, an economic impact of WWI was that Indian manufacturing could thrive for the first time; profits go up from 6% in 1914 to 30% in 1917. This either heightened nationalism as Indians realised they didn’t have to rely on Britain economically, politically etc OR arguably kept resentment of the colonial administration minimal because of minimal economic suffering.

Question 30

Imperial War conference

Answer 30

Invitation to the Imperial War Conference, 1917 o Indians were being treated as having equal colonial status to the other dominions present at the conference – suggested that Indian requests for home rule were being taken seriously Example of concession

Question 31

Simon Commission and Report

Answer 31

1927-1930 o Established to review the 1919 Government of India Act (supposed to be reviewed after 10 years, but moved forward) o Didn’t include any Indians on the Commission so already undermines the eventual outcome of the report o It ultimately recommended a federal system in India, with defence, internal security and foreign affaire remaining British controlled

Question 32

Dominion Declaration

Answer 32

1929 o States that India attaining ‘dominion status’ was the ‘logical outcome of the Montagu Declaration of 1917’ – in some ways, a big step forward as the Simon Commission made no reference to dominion status or the Montagu Declaration o BUT doesn’t stop Nehru from declaring purna swaraj, as there is still no timeframe or logistical planning

Question 33

Communal Award

Answer 33

1932 o States that there should actually be separate electorates for minorities (Muslims and the Untouchables), going against Gandhi and what had been discussed at the Round Table Conferences o Gandhi starts a fast in protest (declares a national hartal)

Question 34

1935 Government of India Act

Answer 34

o Creates a federal system in India (full Indian control at provincial level) and expands the electorate from 5m to 35m o BUT by this point Indian nationalists want total independence, so the Act doesn’t concede enough to appease nationalism (so this is an unsuccessful attempt at a policy of concession, because its too moderate and coming too late)

Question 35

Declaration of war on behalf of Indians

Answer 35

o Declares war on behalf of India, but without consulting any provincial Indian leaders or members of the INC o Example of British policies creating unnecessary resentment – Indian leaders/the Indian population probably would’ve still supported going to war with Britain against Germany, but the deliberate lack of consultation was the provocative thing here

Question 36

Cabinet Mission

Answer 36

1946 o Cabinet Mission arrive in India to resolve the nation’s constitutional issues – they propose an all-India union but with 3 clusters of provincial governments (Congress dominated areas, Muslim majority areas, and areas with a slight Muslim majority (Bengal and Assam)) – both the Muslim League and Congress agree, for once! o But… ruined because of Nehru’s speech at the press conference, destroying the Muslim League’s faith that Muslim minority rights will actually be respected