Decolonisation in Africa Flashcards
Nyasaland: The Nyasaland emergency
o Widespread rioting led by the Nyasaland African Congress in January 1959 prompts the British authorities to declare a state of emergency, believing that there was a plot to massacre all Europeans. Whilst not true, the frantic response of the British indicates the threatening nature of nationalist pressure
rioting created international embarrassment, as well as hindering the functionality of colonial rule in the Nyasaland, making the British realise that they couldn’t keep the territory without committing more money and military resources
o Nyasaland becomes independent in 1964 as Malawi
Kenya: The Mau Mau Uprising
o Guerrilla warfare against the British triggered by economic stresses about land (1952-60)
o 70% of the 1.5million Kikuyus took the Mau Mau oath
o During Operation Anvil in April 1954, the British army rounded up thousands of kikuyu in Nairobi and sent them to holding camps for ‘political rehabilitation’. The extent and unjustness of the violence created international humiliation…
o E.g., in March 1959, it was publicly revealed that the British had beaten 11 prisoners to death at the Hola detention camp and had attempted to cover it up
o Whilst only 32 whites were killed, Mau Mau violence was threatening enough to provoke brutal retaliation: 13 500 Africans were killed during the uprising – British violence causes international embarrassment, strengthens Kenyan anti-Britishness, and makes clear to the British that Kenya was essentially ungovernable without committing a lot more money and military resources into controlling a resentful indigenous population
o Kenya becomes independent with Kenyatta as President in 1963
Uganda: Apolo Milton Obote
o Led the Uganda People’s Congress (UPC)
o Helped overcome divisions in Ugandan nationalism by accepting a constitution in 1962 that granted federal status within Uganda to five traditional kingdoms, including Buganda, which was initially the UPC’s main opposition – so conceded power in order to create unified government and enable independence in 1962
Nigeria: Dr Nmandi Azikiwe
o He his own political grouping, the National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)
o He bridged divisions between Nigerians: none of the three nationalist parties could get enough votes to form a majority on their own, but Dr Azikiwe negotiated a deal with the NPC so that a coalition government between the NPC and NCNC could jointly govern an independent Nigeria in 1960 – Dr Azikiwe agreed to serve the largely honorary post of president of the Senate under the deputy leader of the NPC who became PM
The Gold Coast: Kwame Nkrumah
o Nkrumah founds his own Convention People’s Party in 1949 and organises a campaign of ‘positive action’, inspired by Gandhian methods of protest: strikes and boycotts
o Effectively organising this campaign earns him the respect of Sir Charles Arden Clarke, who recognises his role as representative nationalist leader and releases him from prison (1951), giving him the title ‘Leader of government business’ (which in 1952 becomes called PM
o By effectively campaigning for his party and winning both the 1954 and 1956 elections in the Gold Coast, Nkrumah convinces the British that African nationalist leadership/governance is sufficiently stable and united
o Subsequently, the Gold Coast becomes independent in 1957 as Ghana
Kenya: Jomo Kenyatta
o Kenyatta returns to Kenya in 1946 to become President of the Kenya Africa Union and tours the country campaigning for the return of land given to white settlers – spreads nationalist sentiment, catalysing the Mao Mao Uprising which made the British revalue the cost-benefit of empire (given the cost of supressing disturbances) and also internationally embarrassed them
o Independence was also given in 1963 under Kenyatta’s leadership, so his popularity and competence evidently made the British trust that African majority rule would work
C) The Wind of Change speech: nationalism
‘whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact […] and our national policies must take account of it’ (1960) – policy as being determined by a rise in nationalism across Africa, not necessarily by British attitudes (i.e., ‘whether we like it or not’)
Kenya: Iain Macleod
o At the Lancaster House Conference in 1960, containing Africans and some European delegates, Macleod secured their agreement to a constitution which opened the way for an eventual black majority rule
o Macleod accelerated independent across East Africa far more than even Macmillan thought
o Kenya becomes independent in 1963
Nigeria: John Stuart Macpherson
o As Governor of Nigeria, Macpherson was responsible for the introduction of the liberal 1951 ‘Macpherson constitution’ which replaced the Richard’s constitution – it provided for “semi-responsible government” – an example of constitution mongering where the appeasing of nationalist demands for more political say either intentionally or unintentionally paved the way for independence
o Nigeria becomes independent in 1960
The Gold Coast: Sir Charles Arden Clarke
o Clarke recognises Kwame Nkrumah and the CPP’s legitimacy in representing popular opinion so releases him from prison in 1951 after his ‘positive action’ campaign. Clarke also gave him the title ‘Leader of government business’, then of Prime Minister in 1952, paving the way for him to govern independent Ghana in 1957 – gradually appeased nationalist demands for self-government, making full independence increasingly likely
o (Additionally, he allowed an investigation commission to assess colonial rule in the Gold Coast, which concluded that “a substantial measure of reform” was needed to meet the “legitimate aspirations of the indigenous population”)
The Wind of Change: metropolitan factors
1960 given my Harold Macmillan: talks about ‘the basis of a free society’ including ‘the opportunity to have an increasing share in political power and responsibility’
Audit of Empire: Macmillan
o Initiated an audit of empire post-Suez crisis, in which officials considered which colonies were ready for independence and whether Britain would gain or lose from their departure – whilst the audit proved inconclusive, the fact that Macmillan initiated it shows that his government were actively revaluating their colonial policies rather than simply responding to specific instances of nationalist resistance
Failure of colonial development
Tanganyika ground nut scheme launched in the aftermath of WWII – cost £36 million but didn’t produce enough nuts to make any profit at all (more nuts were imported for seed) – difficulties in making Eastern Africa economically productive caused the British to re-evaluate the cost-benefit of Empire – Tanganyika becomes independent in 1961
Suez crisis
o Nasser refuses to sign the Baghdad Pact in 1955, which was an agreement between various countries to repel any Soviet threat to the middle-east, and signs a deal with Czechoslovakia (a soviet satellite state) to get funding for the Aswan Dam
o Due to Nasser’s connection with communist powers, therefore, Britain helps to create the ‘protocol of Sèvres’ which was a plan to stage an Israel invasion of the canal, and then have British and French bring in troops to ‘defend’ it
o The coordination between Franco-British and Israeli troops is obvious, causing both the US and UN to condone the attack, and eventually forcing Eden to leave Egypt unconditionally
o So… Britain loses all influence over Egypt (NOT actual occupation though) due to a fear that it would join the Communist bloc, as this concern prompts a rash, badly planned, and immoral invasion of the Suez Canal
Quotes indicating active concern about Cold War pressures
o Wind of Change, 1960: Macmillan questions whether ‘the uncommitted peoples of Asia and Africa will swing to the East or to the West’ – so by giving independence swiftly and appeasing nationalist demands, Britain would be guaranteeing that they stay friendly with the West (esp. economic influence)
o Sir Andrew Cohen, former governor of Uganda, noted that the main drive behind British colonial policy seemed to be ‘killing communism’
B) UN pressures surrounding ideas of accountability
‘Declaration of the Granting of Independence to Colonial People’, 1960– a resolution affirming independence for countries and peoples under colonial rule, and stressing that this should be done without unnecessary delay
List nationalist uprisings and dates
Nyasaland: The Nyasaland emergency (1959)
Kenya: The Mau Mau Uprising (1952-60)
List nationalist leaders and their corresponding countries
Uganda: Apolo Milton Obote
Nigeria: Dr Nmandi Azikiwe
The Gold Coast: Kwame Nkrumah
Kenya: Jomo Kenyatta
List colonial administrators and their corresponding countries
Kenya: Iain Macleod
Nigeria: John Stuart Macpherson
The Gold Coast: Sir Charles Arden Clarke
