Empire at home: attitudes and economics, 1857-1914 Flashcards
Sum up the Conservatives’ imperial policy during this period, including examples of Disraeli’s jingoism
o Disraeli began asserting that the Conservatives were the ‘party of empire’ during the 1870s. E.g., in his Crystal Palace speech of 1872 talked about upholding empire as the second ‘great object’ of the Conservative party
o Won the 1874 election by playing the imperialist card – especially in order to win over the male working class, who had recently been franchised (extending the franchise from 1m to 2.5m)
o Disraeli showed his jingoistic support of empire through buying £4 million’ worth of Suez Canal shares in 1875
o Initiated the 1878 Anglo-Afghan invasion to protect India (resounding defeat with almost 10,000 British losses), as well as the Zulu wars (including the embarassing defeat at Isandlwana in 1879)
What was the imperial policy of the liberal party, and give key examples of Gladstone backing this up through action
o Gladstone declined to commit further troops, time or money to the First Anglo-Boer war (1880-81) after British forces’ defeat at Majuba Hill in February 1881 – possibly reflects criticism of Conservative jingoism and in particular desire for hegemony over South Africa
o During the Mahdist Rebellion in the Sudan in 1884, Gladstone urged the withdrawal of Anglo-Egyptian troops and reflected that the Sudanese are ‘rightly struggling to be free’ – so, Gladstone’s anti-imperialism (even if he was pro-empire) perhaps reflects public dissention from jingoism and emerging criticism of empire
o Gladstone supported the Home Rule Bill for Ireland when he returned to power in 1886, confirming his reluctant imperial status
What did Gladstone do that contradicted his outward policy?
o He did support empire to some extent though: he helped install Khedive Tewfiq as ruler of Egypt in 1882 as a response to Arabi Pasha’s uprising, as he wanted the Suez securely protected – so… can’t necessarily use support for Gladstone as indicating a shift away from imperialism
How does increased literacy and extended franchise show support for Empire?
o The Education Act of 1870 increased national literacy
o The extension of the franchise from 1m to 2.5m in 1867 (out of time period though), and then to 5.5m in 1884 made the public more politically aware – imperialist governments (conservative but ALSO liberal to some extent) not only now reflected the wider public opinion, but could also now actively increase support for empire nationally through imperialist propaganda in speeches etc.
How did the press increase support for empire/indicate it was already there?
o The press expressed strong, racist views regarding Arabi Pasha’s revolt of Egypt in 1882, pointing to the imperialist attitudes amongst the British public which pressured Gladstone into intervening and installing Khedive Tewfiq as ruler of Egypt: The Pall Mall Gazette wrote of ‘the Moslem mob’, and the Daily Telegraph recounted that the rebels had killed ‘all the Christians they could find’ in Alexandria. Criticism of the anti-British uprising indicates active support for a British imperial presence there.
o Alfred Harmsworth established the cheap, populist Daily Mail in 1896, which sold imperialist propaganda to the lower-middle classes especially: in the Second Boer War, it sold over a million copies a day and hammered the public with stories that celebrated the heroism of British troops and damned the Boers as well as Kruger
What evidence is there to suggest support for empire amongst the youth?
o Clubs and associations like the Boys’ Brigade (1883) began to appear, reinforcing imperialist values via military training and moral education
o Imperialism encouraged amongst young boys and girls: The Religious Tract Society produced both the Boy’s Own Paper and the Girl’s Own Paper, which secured a readership of between a quarter and half a million in the years 1890-1914.
o Howard Handley Spicer set up the Boys’ Empire League which boasted 7000 members in 1900, and encouraged imperialism especially through setting an annual exam which was set with a first prize of £25 and an offer of free passage to one of the colonies – presenting the Empire as an exotic destination and appealed to their adventurousness
What is Social Darwinism and how does it indicate support for Empire?
o Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) and his theory of natural selection spread ideas around the biological superiority of European races over indigenous colonial peoples – provided a moral justification for empire, meaning that people could be both humanitarian and imperialist
How do exhibitions show support for Empire?
o In 1886, the Colonial and Indian Exhibition held in South Kensington had Indians brought to Britain as ‘living exhibits’ for the purposes of entertainment and self-congratulations – the existence of these exhibitions, and the fact that people came to them, shows how the British public were invested and interested in other cultures (even if it was in a condescending way) and therefore supported the empire as a means of getting this cultural education
o Africa exhibition in 1890 had trophy displays of shields, spears, axes and throwing knives from African tribes – people may have supported Empire as a means of stimulating their scientific interest/gaining a cultural education
Give two examples of high imperialists (who reflected the attitudes of the upper elite classes, but also had the power to shape public opinion through political propaganda)
o Lord Curzon: Empire as ‘so great an instrument for the good of humanity’
o Joseph Chamberlain, the Colonial Secretary, believed that there was a ‘national crisis’ in Britain which would only be solved by a reorganised and strongly united empire (involving the pooling of sovereignty and an imperial parliament)
How did the existence of imperialist groups/societies show public support for Empire?
o Royal Colonial Institute provided a meeting place for imperial activists to discuss colonial affairs
o The Victoria League (founded in 1901), was a non-political union founded by women to promote closer ties between empire countries through ‘hospitality, fundraising, friendship and education’
o The Round Table movement (founded in 1909) was intended to promote a closer union between Britain and its self-governing colonies; in 1910 and 1911, Round Table groups were formed in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada
o All show how the British public supported empire, as they actively tried to strengthen and unify it
How did the focus on ‘national efficiency’ after the Boer war indicate support for empire (despite it being read by some as a criticism)?
o Social/military reforms stemmed from a new determination to make Britain a stronger colonial power (after the humiliation of the Boer war)
o Over 40% of military recruits for the Boer War were declared unfit for military service - so social reforms meant to help improve general effectiveness of the British population
o 1902 Education Act sought to raise school standards and led to the opening of 1000 secondary schools over the following decade – better educated youth which could take over from important administrative/political/military positions in empire
o Kipling published the short story ‘The Army of a Dream’ in 1904, in which he puts forward various methods for reforming the British Army of the period (including a rule that you can only vote if you have served in the army – making military service voluntary but almost universal) so arguably the Second Boer War suggested to some imperialists that not enough was being done to strengthen/maintain empire (ie there was criticism, but it was contrastive and still imperialist at heart)
o The Royal Navy was modernised by committing to a new class of battleship – the Dreadnought, which was first launched in 1906 – military modernisation indicating a desire to strengthen empire and protect it from decline/destruction by other emerging industrial powers (eg Germany)
o Imperial College London was founded in 1907
How did imperial literature show support for empire?
o Rudyard Kipling’s poem ‘The White Man’s Burden’ (written in 1899) expressed Victorian ideals of the racial supremacy of Europeans, and their moral obligation to ‘civilise’ non-European peoples through colonial rule (described these indigenous peoples as ‘Half devil and half child’, suggesting savagery and a dependence on competent, white rule)
o Gertrude Page emigrated to Rhodesia in 1900 and produced over 20 novels based on the lives and loves of fellow settlers – subtle imperialist propaganda through romantic fiction (more accessible to lower classes and women)
So… reflects popular opinion and interest because literature is made to satisfy demand, but also was a form of subtle indoctrination at the same time.
How did music indicate/increase support for empire?
o Edward Elgar was a very popular ‘imperial’ composer, and sought to capture ‘the nobility of empire’ in his music; he wrote an ‘Imperial March’ for Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 1897, and composed ‘The Crown of India’ for the Delhi durbar of 1911 – helped to stimulate patriotism and jingoism through ‘imperial’ music – made imperialist propaganda more accessible (ie people could feel patriotic without reading books/the paper)
So… galvanised support for empire through linking it to universal patriotic feeling.
How do national celebrations indicate support for empire? Or how did they increase it?
o Queen Victoria’s Diamon Jubilee of 1897 involved a huge military display involving 50,000 troops (representing different part of the empire) – huge national celebrations and shows of patriotism – hard to miss, even if you don’t actively seek jingoism
o After Queen Victoria’s death on 22nd January 1901, her birthday became celebrated as Empire Day (though not formally recognised as an events until 1916) – Lord Meath claimed that Empire Day was a “symbol of that unity of feeling … to those ideals of freedom, justice and tolerance for which the British Empire [stood] throughout the world” – an opportunity for more imperialist propaganda along the ‘white man’s burden’ lines – ie a moral obligation to indigenous peoples
Give an example of jingoism during the Boer War?
o When British troops relieved a small force besieged at Mafeking in May 1900, hundreds of thousands went to the streets intoxicated by military success (imperialism amongst working classes too)
In what ways were people actually apathetic towards empire?
o Empire Day, despite being suggested by Lord Meath in 1896, was not celebrated until 1902 and only formally recognised by parliament in 1916 – evidence that these high imperialists didn’t galvanise much support for empire amongst the wider population (remained a minority)
o Not everything accessible to all sectors of society (eg youth groups like the Boys Brigade and the Boys’ Empire League wouldn’t be accessible to the lower classes, and membership was probably just made up of the children of high imperialists/upper classes). Same logic with exhibitions (eg the 1886 Colonial and Indian Exhibition) imperialist societies (eg the Royal Colonial Institute founded in 1870)
o ‘National efficiency’ arguably doesn’t indicate renewed support for empire, but a renewed focus on improving the domestic conditions in Britain. The Boer War merely revealed the extent of poverty and bad living conditions that British people faced: over 40% of military recruits for the Boer War were declared unfit for service, and the Rowntree study in 1902 showed that almost 1/3 population in York lived below the poverty line. So… look at reforms as signalling a move away from imperialism (further shown by the 1906 Liberal Landslide).
Who were three famous critics of Empire?
John A. Hobson
Emily Hobhouse
Wilfred Scawen Blunt
How did John A. Hobson show critical attitudes towards empire?
o John A. Hobson, who wrote Imperialism in 1902, spread ideas through the British public that Britain’s imperial policy was driven by rich capitalists to make profits through investment; he called imperialist expansion a ‘capitalist plot’. He especially regarded the Second Boer War was a consequence of Jewish capitalists who wanted to secure South Africa’s gold resources – deeply antisemitic but does reveal the emergence of social anti-imperialism and the questioning of the traditional moral justifications for empire
How did Emily Hobhouse criticise empire?
o Emily Hobhouse, a welfare campaigner who investigated the conditions of British concentration camps during the Second Boer War, observed in 1901: ‘a six months’ baby gasping its life out on its mother’s knee. Two or three others drooping sick in that tent.’ – drew attention to the absence of medical care in black concentration camps, which was in part responsible for the death of 20,000 out of 130,000 black civilians – indicates how the Second Boer War saw the emergence of criticism from humanitarians regarding how imperialism was conducted (even if the fact of empire existing wasn’t challenged)
How did Wilfred Scan Blunt criticise empire?
o Wilfred Scawen Blunt was a poet who imitated the imperial propaganda of Rudyard Kipling, penning the line in 1899 ‘The white man’s burden, Lord, is the burden of his cash’ – unpicking the moral justification for empire
economic benefits of empire: employment opportunities
o Direct employment opportunities were through creating military and administrative opportunities: 3000 British people were employed to administer India alone
o The working classes benefitted from empire in indirect ways, and especially through the creation of employment opportunities: the Lancashire cotton mills, which employed some 600,000 workers by 1912, heavily relied on the Indian Market (India took 25% of all Lancashire cotton exports by WWI)
o The shipbuilding yards in Portsmouth, Glasgow, Birkenhead and Belfast, which employed near to one million workers, were kept in work by the fact that a large navy was required for the defence of the Empire
economic benefits: investment
o Heavy investment thus economic dependence: in 1911, investment in Canada was worth £373m
economic benefits: trade
Empire as a supplier…
- Imports from Canada average £28m in worth (1909-13)
- Imports from India to Britain average in value at £45m (1909-1913)
- Imports from Egypt average in value at £13m (1909-1913), owing primarily to cotton
- Imports from Australia average in value at £56m (1909-1913)
Empire as a market…
- Exports to India average in value at £54m (1909-1913)
- Exports to Australia average in value at £40m (1909-1913)
economic benefits: migration opportunities
o 1901-1910, 1.8 Britons left home and 50% of these settled in the White Dominions
