Foreign Policy

Question 1

what were Ferdinand and Isabellas foreign policy aims in Castile?

Answer 1

-maintain friendly relations with france
-concern over Granada
-concern over relations with portugal
-challenge islamic rulers in Granada

Question 2

what were Ferdinand and Isabellas foreign policy aims in Aragon?

Answer 2

• concern over French ambitions
  -eager to regain Roussillon and cerdagne
  -challenge France over its interests in Navarre
  -protect Sicily and Sardinia

Question 3

Why was foreign policy so successful under Ferdinand and Isabella?

Answer 3

-improvements in military organisation
-new weaponary
-ferdinand
-use of ambassadors

Question 4

how did improvements in military organisation contribute for Ferdinand and Isabella?

Answer 4

-F+I gained experience in granada war
-F+I controlled their armies rather than relying on nobility
-soldiers became accustomed to understanding they needed to be present at inspection, obey orders and keep weapons in good condition
-royal regulations 1495-1503 laid down how military units should be organised

Question 5

how did new weaponry contribute for Ferdinand and Isabella?

Answer 5

-heavy guns made more efficient
-field armies better trained
-traditional arms continued to be used
-development in artillery
-ferdinand set up many armament works and employed specialists from Germany and France

Question 6

how did use of ambassadors contribute for Ferdinand and Isabella?

Answer 6

-by 1490’s Spain had ambassadors in England and Papal States, burgundy, Germany and venice
-gave Ferdinand advantage over other rulers
-present Spanish position on issues to other rulers
-discover relevant information
-they can negotiate on behalf of Spain

Question 7

how did Ferdinand contribute for Ferdinand and Isabella?

Answer 7

-showed good timing and judgement on when to act and negotiate
-showed peace and loyalty
-ambassadors skilful at achieving success by diplomacy
-his army and equipment became most feared fighting force in Europe

Question 8

Describe Marriage alliances during Isabella and Ferdinand

Answer 8

-1509 Ferdinand Marries Germaine de Foix, King of France Niece
-1501 Ferdinand daughter, Catherine Of Aragon marries Arthur (English heir to throne) then Henry VIII
-I+F daughter, Isabella marries Alfonso, ruler of Portugal then Emanuel I then when Isabella died, Emanuel marries her sister, Maria

Question 9

describe Ferdinand and Isabellas relations with Portugal

Answer 9

-previously, there was conflict over Canary Islands and Portugal invaded Castile in support of Joannas claim to the throne
-1479 Treaty of Alcacovas, Portugal handed ownership of Canary Islands to Spain which improved relations

Question 10

describe Ferdinand and Isabellas relations with France (Navarre)

Answer 10

-1/2 in spain 1/2 in France so gave France a base to invade spain
-castile aligned with aragonese anti-french policies which caused tension with France
-1493 Treaty of Barcelona-french gave up Roussillon and Cerdagne as its attention diverted to Italy and protecting its own frontiers
-1512 Ferdinand invaded Navarre with 2nd Duke of Alba and occupied the kingdom so it became part of the Castilian crown

Question 11

describe Ferdinand and Isabellas relations with North Africa

Answer 11

-Isabella wanted to continue reconquest in North Africa
-Ferdinand eager to attack to protect Granada
-Portuguese used west coast to trade so in 1476, 1477 and 1478 Isabella sent privateering ships to intercept
-Ferdinand and Cisneros conquered:
Oran 1509
Bougie 1510
Tripoli 1510
Which strengthened Spanish control of trade

Question 12

describe Ferdinand and Isabellas relations with Naples

Answer 12

-ferdinand didnt want France to control Naples as it would endanger Spanish policy in the mediteranean
-1495 French invaded Italy and occupied it, Ferdinand joined Holy league
-1503 Cordoba secured Cerignola and Garigliano over French
-1505 Treaty of Blois, Louis XII gave his right to Naples to Germaine de Foix, who Ferdinand married in 1505

Question 13

describe Ferdinand and Isabellas relations with the Mediterranean

Answer 13

-concern of expansion of ottoman turks into the mediteranean
-1501 Castile helped expel ottomans from St George in Cephalonia

Question 14

When was the Granada War

Answer 14

1482

Question 15

What were the causes of the Granada War

Answer 15

-Isabella and Ferdinand eager to prevent the emergence of an alliance between the ottomans, corsair muslims and Granada moors
-financial opportunities (it managed the saharan trade of gold and silk trade)
-needed Granada to complete reconquest

Question 16

What were the reasons for victory of the Granada war

Answer 16

-Noble rivals fought together (Marquess of Cadiz and Duke of Medina Sidonia)
-There was an emergence of a national army: 50,000 soldiers 10,000 Cavalry
-It was funded by: Cruzada, Papal grant of 800m Maravedis, Jews taxed 58m, 27m from Mesta
- 1487 Capture of Malaga- supplies by sea and disrupted Moors communications

Question 17

What were the consequences of the Granada War

Answer 17

-Population change- 100,000 killed, 40,000 christian settlers moved in
-200,000 converts
-strengthened royal authority
-linked Church and nobility
-access to sea trade (Malaga)

Question 18

What was Charles Methodology for foreign policy?

Answer 18

-Royal treasury made contracts with reputable captains
-spanish army gained experience in Granada war
-italian wars improved professionalism and efficiency of Spanish troops
-Tercios introduced in 1534-standard regimental unit
-Pikes and Arguebuses introduced
-The number of his campaigns forced him to depend on German and Walloon mercenaries

Question 19

Describe Charles’ relationship with Navarre 1521

Answer 19

-Aragonese Policy was Anti-french
-Spain gained Cerdagne, Roussillon and Navarre
-1521 Francis I attacked Navarre to exploit internal instability caused by the communeros revolt, Communeros rebels joined royal forces to drive out French, 6000 frenchmen killed, French artillery seized, 1000’s taken prisoner including commander L’Esparre
-French and Spanish considered Pyrenees suitable border
-1522 Charles secured Alliance w/ Henry VIII, Treaty of Windsor, agreed on conquest of France
Henry would get French Crown and western provinces, Charles would recover former Burgundian lands: Plan was unrealistic and underestimated French strength

Question 20

Describe Charles’ relationship with Naples

Answer 20

-1516 Spanish consolidated position in Naples which made it difficult for the French to challenge Spanish supremacy
-1520’s France attempted to secure Naples through Various campaigns
-1529 Troops defeated at Battle of Landriano
-1529 Peace of Cambrai which left Charles in virtual control of Italy
-1542 French army of 40,000 attacked Spains Northern Frontier, strong Spanish resistance delayed French advance so 3rd Duke of Alba could Bring 2000 experienced soldiers and Veterans from the North African Campaign

Question 21

Describe Charles’ relationship with Milan

Answer 21

Milan was of strategic importance because it linked the HRE and the Netherlands to spain and Italian city-states
1516- Battle of Marignano, Francis I secured Milan
1524- Charles reconquered Milan
1525- Charles secured victory at Battle of Pavia and captured Francis
1526- Treaty of Madrid, Francis renounced his claims to Italy and Flanders and to hand over Burgundy to Charles for his freedom, he was released but realised it was unenforceable and created the league of cognac
1536- French invaded duchy of savoy to conquer Milan, by 1538, French failed but Charles was deeply indebted
1540- Charles secured Milan for spain by conferring it to Phillip

Question 22

What occurred with Lutheranism 1518-1529?

Answer 22

-1518 Luther posts 95 theses
-1521 Charles is faced with religious crisis, Diet of Worms put Luther under an imperial ban but wasn’t arrested because Elector Frederick the wise of Saxony continued to protect him
-1522 introduced inquisition against Lutherans and Anabaptists in 1525
-1524 Imperial diet of Nuremberg called to suppress Lutheranism
-1526/29 Diets of Speyer showed political tide changing, Lutheranism got breathing space bc princes unwilling to decide whether or not to support lutheranism
-1529 diet of speyer- lutheranism acquired princely support
-1531 Schmalkaldic league formed as a defence military alliance for the lutherans

Question 23

What were the 2 ways Charles could confront the lutheran religious issue?

Answer 23

1. Negotiation (Favoured) 1541 meeting at Regensberg, Catholic and Lutheran theologians agreed on doctrine of double justification of faith
   -1541 declaration of Ratisbon- lutheran princes given right to reestablish monasteries and institutions
2. Suppress movement by force- difficult to achieve because Charles had many other priorities . Charles had to repel a French invasion of the Netherlands and sought to expand his territories

Question 24

What occurred with Lutheranism 1542-1552?

Answer 24

-1542-44 Peace of Crepy, marked temporary pause to war with France so Charles could take on Lutheranism. Charles achieved Spains blessing to deal with Luther. Charles mobilised an army of 25,000 and defeated the Lutherans at Muhlberg.
-1548 Augsberg Interim- satisfied no one, Too catholic for Lutherans but too sympathetic for Lutherans for Catholics
-1551 Henry VII promised military and financial assistance for the schmalkaldic league formalised by the treaty of Friedwald. France persuaded Ottomans to break truce with the Hapsburg
-1552 Treaty of Passau ratified: lutheranism given legal and official recognition within the empire, princes could dictate the religion in their provinces

Question 25

What occurred with the Ottomans 1516-1529?

Answer 25

-1516 Barbarossa founded the pirate commonwealth and used Algiers as its headquarters, he sought to drive out christians from North Africa
-1525 Algiers became the administrative centre for the ottoman province. Sulleiman secured an alliance with Barbarossa whilst Charles lacked no. of trained sailors and naval stores
-1526 Jannissaries defeated Louis II of Hungary at Battle of Mohacs, Spanish were reluctant to assist Hapsburg as it didnt concern them
-1528 Doria defected from French and transferred his fleet to Charles
-1529 Ottoman Siege of Vienna symbolised threat so Charles mobilised an army of 6000 spaniards- Charles was willing to defend Austria but didnt have the resources to protect Hungarian lands
-1529 Peace of Cambrai allowed Charles to focus on the Ottomans
-1529 Muslim raids on Valencian Coast, Barbarossa seized Penon de Valez and defeated Spanish fleet of 8 galleys off ibiza

Question 26

What occurred with the Ottomans 1532-1535?

Answer 26

-1532 Peace of Nuremberg meant that Lutherans wouldn’t be condemned for their beliefs and Charles could focus on the Ottomans as they secured links with N.African corsairs
-1532 Doria, 40 galleys and 10,000 men went to the east Mediterranean and seized Patras then garrisoned and held Coron which relieved pressure on the Hapsburg
-1534 Barbarossa seized Tunis and La Goleta which commanded the seas between Sicily and Africa
-1535 Doria led expedition where he retook Tunis, expelled Barbarossa, restored Hussan to his position and Charles regained control over Sicily

Question 27

What occurred with the ottomans 1538-1555?

Answer 27

-1538 Holy League against ottomans was established
-1541 Fleet of 65 galleys, 450 ships 24000 troops reached North African coast but it was destroyed by the storm before it could besiege Algiers and heavy rain rendered muskets and cannons useless
-1543-44 Barbarossa wintered his fleet in Marseilles which disrupted Spanish trade and communications between Genoa and Barcelona
-1546 Barbarossa died and replaced by Dragut- equally competent
Spanish lost: Tripoli 1551, Penon de Velez 1554 and Bougie 1555
-1555 council of Italy was sign that Mediteranean policy was ceasing to be imperial and becoming part of Spanish foreign policy

Question 28

What were Philips economic foreign policy priorities?

Answer 28

-trade between London and Antwerp was mutually beneficial
-spanish sought to protect their trade routes and maintain their lines of communication with their Italian possessions
-priority to take full advantage of the empires wealth

Question 29

What were Philips political foreign policy priorities?

Answer 29

-Spanish empire was the leading European power of its time
-proximity of their coastlines meant that successful diplomacy was essential
-objective of contains and reversing the growth of Ottoman naval power
-United front of spain and Italy meant greater chance of success against superior naval and military forces of the ottomans
-achieved dominant position in the new world
-developed largest and best information services in Europe
-maintained permanent ambassadors in Rome, Venice, France, Genoa, Vienna and savoy

Question 30

What pressures did Philips foreign policy face?

Answer 30

-Charles abdication left the Hapsburg inheritance divided into spanish and Austrian possessions
-Spanish lands were disparate which hampered effective communication and government, coordination was difficult- one letter from spanish ambassador in Madrid in 1578 took 49 days- made problems difficult to be heard about and responded to
-Philip was forced to rely on his viceroys and governors
-rise of protestantism
-rise of calvinism

Question 31

What did Philips inherit in terms of the Spanish Navy?

Answer 31

-naval force that couldn’t compete with ottoman navy, by 1550’s fleet consisted of only 90 vessels
-early 1960’s spanish embarked on an extensive ship building programme to increase size of the fleet
-1564 Garcia de Toledo supervised 100 Spanish-owned galleys between the coasts of spain and North Africa
-Spain had to combine resources with Italian city states to compete with the ottomans

Question 32

What foreign policy achievements did Philip acquire (France) ?

Answer 32

-1557 Spanish and imperial forces inflicted a heavy defeat on the French at the battle of St. Quentin. The consequence was the peace treaty of Cateau-Cambresis which allowed the French to consolidate their borders

Question 33

Why did Philip have to remain attentive to French affairs?

Answer 33

-domestic unrest in France posed dangers for spain because it bordered spanish territories in the north and south
-the rise of calvinism was perceived to be a threat to spanish security
-late 1560’s and early 1570’s the growing importance of Calvinist Admiral Coligny at the French court raised the possibility of a joint French catholic and Calvinist attack on the spanish netherlands- Colignys assassination in 1572 put end to this plan
-Philip needed to monitor French events carefully and ensure threat of calvinism was properly contained
-Philip feared that if France were to become united under a protestant king, it would be a threat to the spanish Netherlands

Question 34

Describe Philips war and Interference in France

Answer 34

-Duke of Alencon died leaving Henry of Navarre (Calvinist) as French heir
-1584 Spain and France formed the Catholic league which was dedicated to expelling heresy from France and signed the treaty of joinville
-Huegnots attacked spanish communications in the new world which presented a religious and political threat so Philip had to intervene
-1589 Henry III was assassinated by Catholic monk so Henry IV ascended to the throne
-1589 Henry IV defeated the catholic league in the battle of arques
-Spanish determined to ensure French monarchy maintained its fidelity to the catholic faith
-1589 Philip instructed Duke of Parma to prioritise catholic league over Netherlands
-1590-92 Parma had successful expeditions against Henry
-1592 Parma died. 3rd expedition launched against France from Netherlands: financial implications were crippling for economy and crown was struggling to sustain campaigns
-1590-94 Netherlands received 60.7m guilders but 75% was spent on fighting France.
-1593 Henry converts to catholicism
-1594 Henry regained Paris and declared war on Spain
-Spain gained Calais 1595 and Amiens 1597 but was economically debilitating
-Spain lost gains of Toulouse and Marseilles in 1596
-1596 offensive launched against Parma army in the Netherlands which exploded spanish weaknesses
-1596 Elizabeth I signed Treaty with Henry giving him a loan and 2000 men to fight spain
-1596 England, France and United provinces form triple alliance against Spain
-1596 Philip declares 4th bankruptcy
-1598 Spain and France sign treaty of Vervins which reinstated the territorial borders off Cateau-cambresis

Question 35

What did Philip use the council of Italy for?

Answer 35

to ensure that each territory was secure and able to contribute in some fashion to the empires military campaigns

Question 36

Describe Milans importance to Philip

Answer 36

-important on account of its substantial production of armaments and for recruiting troops
-Tercios of Naples, Lombardy and Sicily formed the core of Albas army in the Netherlands in the 1560’s and 1570’s
-strategically significant as it provided a link between the mediterranean and Northern Europe. “Spanish road” provided a route all the way from Mont Cenis to the Netherlands. The valtelline and Engadine routes led, via the Swiss lands, to the HRE and the Austrian hereditary lands
-Governers advised by Philips to respect the senate, the Supreme Court of law and this was successful

Question 37

Describe Naples importance to Philip

Answer 37

-relevant to spanish struggle against Ottomans
-Philips most wealthiest and densely populated Italian territories
-The viceroy rarely faced any opposition and resistance to taxation was rare
-1585 riots over bread prices were managed by Duke of Osuna who used military superiority to quell them. 820 brought to trial, 20 executed, 71 sent to work on galleys and 300 exiled
-Spanish feared rebellion would spread into rest of empire so viceroy was firm in response
-stability reigned bc neapolitans were conscious of the immediacy of the ottoman threat and provincial nobles maintained their own militias in coastal regions in anticipation of corsair raids

Question 38

Describe Sicilys importance to Philip

Answer 38

-essential due to its proximity to the frontline struggle with the ottomans
-sicilys ties with spain were cemented by their common defence against the Ottoman Empire
-the spanish sought to reform the great court of Sicily which proved invaluable for the launching of their mediteranean campaigns

Question 39

what was the effect of the Cateau-Cambresis on Italy?

Answer 39

-Henry II renounced all claims to territories in the Italian peninsula
-restoration of savoy and Piedmont to their duke created an obstacle to further French incursions
-spain emerged as undisputed master of the Italian peninsula

Question 40

What Allies did Philip have in Italy?

Answer 40

-papacy and spanish largely united by efforts to resist ottoman expansion
-french Tuscan cities (Pisa,florence) didnt pose threat to spanish ambitions
-Genoese- Spanish benefitted by expertise, military leader Andrea Doria

Question 41

What were the advantages of Italian Territories?

Answer 41

-represented a frontline to the Ottomans
-Naval expeditions launched from Messina
-Key squadrons came from Spain, Naples and Sicily
-Military support from Genoa, Savoy and the papcy

Question 42

Why were the Ottomans a threat to Philip?

Answer 42

Spain needed to keep open communication with key Italian dominions, Naples and Sicily, Which were on the front line of the conflict. Spain sought to maintain her scattered possessions in North Africa and Philip was determined to contain Sultans Westward expansion and defend his own Spanish coastline.
Ottomans had the most powerful navy and there was threat of muslim unification.
The mediteranean was important because naval achievement would benefit Spanish commerce and shipping in the mediteranean

Question 43

Why didnt Philip choose a truce with the Ottomans?

Answer 43

It wasn’t in his interest as underlying the conflict were ideological differences, the struggle between catholicism and islam. Philip wanted to continue the conflict Charles started as he wanted to expand his territory into Northern Africa.

Question 44

How did the Winter benefit Philip against the Ottomans?

Answer 44

By helping Spanish survival, major powers avoided lengthy military campaigns which kept muslim allies apart and prevented more regular and coordinated attacks on Spanish targets which allowed Spanish to use the time to build up their forces

Question 45

How did the Ottomans cause problems for Philip?

Answer 45

by raiding Spanish and Italian coasts and enslaving captives. Mediteranean commerce was severely disrupted by muslim piracy. Barbary Corsairs were increasingly dominant in the western mediteranean, operating in powerful squadrons.

Question 46

Why was the Tripoli offensive unsuccessful?

Answer 46

-1559 Philip launched expedition to Tripoli to help him control the mediteranean.
-it took 6 months to assemble so the element of surprise was gone
-Turkish admiral heavily defeated the Spanish fleet- spain lost 42 out of 80 vessels and 18,000 men

Question 47

Why was the Malta offensive more successful than the Tripoli offensive?

Answer 47

-The ottomans sought to exploit Spanish weaknesses by besieging Malta in 1565
-Spanish regime and the Grand Master of the knights Templar were taken by surprise by the scale and speed of the ottoman offensive
-christian defenders were confined to only a few forts and Malta was only saved thanks to a timely intervention from the viceroy of Naples

Question 48

How did Philip learn from his mistakes about the Ottomans?

Answer 48

-Instilled a greater sense of urgency into his mediteranean policy by embarking on a more ambitious programme of military and naval reforms
-This necessitated a more defensive strategy and the abandonment of aggressive expeditions, which allowed the Spanish navy to build up its resources

Question 49

Why did the Ottomans fail against Malta the second time?

Answer 49

-La Valette converted the Grand Harbour into one of the most heavily defended fortresses in the Mediteranean
-Had a good sense to realise that Maltas survival depended not only on his skills as a military engineer but also on the provision of adequate stores to deal with the lengthy siege
-The ottomans made the error of anchoring to the south of the island, making it more difficult for the ottomans to break christian lines of communication with Sicily

Question 50

How did Naples and Sicily prove to be important to Philip?

Answer 50

They viceroy and Naples helped with Malta and both provided front lines

Question 51

Why did Philip focus on defensive strategies?

Answer 51

-To focus on the Moriscos and dutch Revolt
-To keep already what he had

Question 52

Describe the Battle of Lepanto

Answer 52

-Holy league consisting of the papacy, Venice, Genoa and spain formed in 1571 (indispensable to challenge ottoman naval dominance)
-the holy league assembled a fleet of 208 galleys, 100 sailing ships, 50,000 troops and 4500 light cavalry
-Spanish were helped by the fact that Duke of Alba was in control of the Low Countries and England was preoccupied with domestic problems
-Holy League benefited from having excellent leaders which collaborated willingly and effectively (Don John of Austria commanded the Spanish fleet and the papal galleys were led by Marc Antonio Colonna)
-Also benefitted by surprise of 6 heavily armed Venetian Galleasses
-Holy league sank 110 Ottoman galleys, captured 130 ottoman warships and 400 pieces of artillery, 3500 taken as prisoners and 15,000 galley slaves were liberated
-League lost only 12 galleys, 9000 soldiers died and 21,000 men wounded

Question 53

Why was the victory at Lepanto symbolic?

Answer 53

-Ottoman fleet fought at a location they chose and lost which discouraged major Ottoman expansion in the western Mediteranean and marked the end of Ottoman naval supremacy
-The ottoman defeat triggered uprisings in Greece and Albania, served to deflect and redirect Ottoman Attention away from the mediteranean

Question 54

Why did the victory at Lepanto not alter the balance of power?

Answer 54

-Campaign was ended on a high as it was too late in the season to continue battle
-The inability to transform a major naval victory into substantial territorial gains showed that the frontiers between Islam and Christianity had reached their natural limits

Question 55

What occurred after the battle of Lepanto?

Answer 55

-Members of the league wanted to pursue their own interests: Spain wanted to secure firmer territorial bases in NA and Venice wanted to improve its position in the Adriatic and the Aegean.
-Venice signed a peace treaty with the Ottoman Sultan in 1573
-Spain retook Tunis in 1573 and defended it with 8000 Spanish and Italian soldiers- expenses too great and the new Ottoman high admiral rebuilt his navy and regained Tunis in 1574
-Both parties reached a military stalemate and agreed on multiple truces between 1578 and 1587.

Question 56

How did Philip become king of Portugal?

Answer 56

-King Sebastian of Portugal was tempted by a succession to the Moroccan throne in 1577
-He set sail and expedition was disaster and he was killed: he had no direct heir and the regency council left by Sebastian proclaimed Cardinal Henry King which allowed Philip time to win support in Portugal and abroad for his claim to be heir
-Henry was unfit to rule and before his death in 1580, he supported the candidature of Phillip. Portugal was in economic crisis and ruling class was either dead or in captivity so Portugal wasn’t in position to withstand succession crisis
-Philip took advantage of having mother from Portuguese royal family and there were well-established matrimonial alliances
-Philips financial situation improved slightly as after 3rd state bankruptcy in 1575, there was an influx of American silver
-it was financial incentive to unite the crowns and portugals empire was commercial so required spanish American gold and silver for exchange purposes
-Propaganda campaign promoted Philips Portuguese credentials to which spanish jurists and theologians contributed
-Portuguese were pressured by force- Duke of Alba led an army of 37,000 troops in 1580
-the mobilisation of spanish soldiers was necessary bc one of the contenders for the throne seized the royal palace in Lisbon
-oppositition easily removed and most towns submitted to Philips authority without fighting
-Philip benefitted from the inability of the other contenders to unite
-Alba was cautious and diplomatic- threatened his army w the most severe penalties if they pillaged the countryside.
-Portuguese cortes acknowledged Philip as king in 1581

Question 57

How did Philip consolidate his position in Portugal?

Answer 57

-went on a peace offensive, helped by the Portuguese jesuits, who had advised Cardinal Henry and had considerable influence in Portugal and succeeded in neutralising any significant opposition to Philips ascension from the lower clergy
-He won over the powerful Braganca family and secured his relationship with them by appointing the Duke of Braganca as constable of Portugal
-helped random the Portuguese nobles held captive in Morocco

Question 58

What did Philip promise to Portugal?

Answer 58

-to protect Portuguese rights and customs
-to appoint only natives to important political offices
-undertook to never hold a Portuguese cortes outside the kingdom and never to legislate on Portuguese affairs in a foreign assembly
-promised the country was to be garrisoned only by Portuguese forces, withdrew his own army after order was restored
-their colonial trade was to remain unchanged, administered by Portuguese officials, conducted by Portuguese merchants and carried in Portuguese ships
-declared that taxes would be spent on Portuguese needs and not used to fulfil Castilian objectives

Question 59

How did Philip govern Portugal?

Answer 59

-Portugals lower ranks of clergy opposed spanish domination but they lacked direction
-Granvelle, Philips principaal adviser, insisted on key policy change and made the necessary preparations for Philip to enter Portugal
-Philip stayed in Lisbon 1580-83 and appointed Archduke Albert of Austria as his representative until 1593 and later replaced him w 4 leading Portuguese notables
-He sensibly left most of his courtiers and ministers behind in castile
-he established a council of Portugal to facilitate the preservation of royal authority

Question 60

What were the advantages of Portuguese annexation?

Answer 60

-gave Castile greater security and prosperity
-he gained the 2nd largest colonial empire in the world including Brazil, parts of west Africa, the East Indies and the Azores: contribution to revenues was minor due to costs of defending new possessions
-portuguese empire rallied to Philip without presenting opposition
-spanish inherited many Atlantic ports, Portuguese navy, which consisted of 12 fighting galleons and a large Atlantic fleet manned by experienced sailors
-Iberian Peninsula was under one ruler

Question 61

Why were there issues in the Netherlands for Philip?

Answer 61

-considerable distance from spain so making decisions, communicating and transferring resources and troops was difficult for the Castilian government
-States general presented various political, religious and financial grievances as it led to further demands
-Philip was in Castile so it was difficult to enforce policy and get the Dutch to accept it
-Dutch increasingly resented heavy taxation
-Changing attitudes also resulted from shifts in Habsburg dynastic politics: Netherlands were now ruled by foreign king rather than HRE- made dutch feel they were subjects of spain rather than part of the broader European empire

Question 62

What other distractions did Philip face whilst trying to deal with/ travel to the Netherlands?

Answer 62

-Don Carlos crisis
-Ottoman threat persisted during the period of 1559-66 and Philip struggled to focus on other affairs
-Spain started to prepare for the lepanto campaign
-Philips gov had to deal with other territories (new world, Portugal and Italian dominions) and foreign foes (England and France)

Question 63

What causes religious tensions in the Netherlands during Philips reign?

Answer 63

-the rise and consolidation of Dutch calvinism
-the icons and other religious decorations of catholic churches were a target and in 1566 hundreds of churches and monasteries were attacked by discontented calvinist mobs across the Netherlands
-there was noble support for the dutch revolt: William of Oragnges quest for the Netherlands was equivalent to the 1555 peace of Augsburg, not well received by Philip, compromise was unimaginable
-Dutch nobles were suspicious of clerical reform and resistant to repressive religious policies: tolerance of leading nobles allowed the revolt to spread throughout the northern provinces
-Calvinism was successful in towns and among lower ranks of nobility, majority of population remained catholic but many were willing to tolerate any religious group that opposed the spanish

Question 64

Why couldn’t Philip abandon the Netherlands?

Answer 64

-it was vital to the spanish economy
-Antwerp was the greatest commercial centre in Europe
-60% of spanish wool went to the Low Countries

Question 65

What instigated the dutch revolt?

Answer 65

-Philips policies provoked the crisis by introducing an overly ambitious programme for ecclesiastical reorganisation
-nobility became worried by appointment of Granvelle as Archbishop of Mechelen
-Pope promoted Granvelle as cardinal so he took precedence over Orange and Egmont on the Council of state
-religious changes alienated dutch political elites
-abbots were forced to resign their positions to nw bishops, while magistrates objected to the introduction of inquisitors
-Philip failed to visit the Netherlands and sought to monopolise decision making for afar surrounded by spanish advisors who had not understandings of the nature or extent of the crisis: his absence allowed the situation to get our of control and persuaded the dutch that Philip was king of spain rather than their anointed sovereign
-he was determined to keep dutch nobles again from power and sought to reduce their political influence of the states general: wanted them to accept their subordinate status
-expected the Netherlands to raise sufficient funds to maintain their government
-eager to preserve catholicism and reluctant to negotiate with calvinists

Question 66

How did the policy of repression impact the dutch revolt?

Answer 66

-counter-productive and discredited the spanish regime
-Duke of alba was governor of Netherlands and he thought brutal oppression was the only way of dealing with the rebellion
-He established the council of troubles and it led to the arrest of 12,300 and execution of 1100 between 1567-73
-its brutality gave it the label of “the council of blood”- made spanish troops gain a bad name
-1572, after the siege of Haarlem, Alba ordered the execution of 2000 troops and city magistrates and imposed a fine of 200,000 florins
-1576 violent sacking of Antwerp by mutinous spanish troops had the effect of uniting the Netherlands against the spanish
-1568, Orange led 4 armies into the Netherlands to remove Alba but rebellion was put dow by 1570
-Alba was forced to raise funds from within the Netherlands in the early 1570’s because Philip was preoccupied with his campaigns against the ottomans
-Alba decided to impose a Tenth penny tax without the consent of the provincial states, leading to a new uprising
-Only solution was for spanish forces to be funded by castile. by 1575, this was costing Castilian treasury up to 700,000 ducats per month
-Sack of Antwerp followed the 3rd Castilian state bankruptcy
-1590-1597, the army of Flanders cost more than 20 million ducats- Philips regime was only able to support troops because of the influx of new world silver

Question 67

How did the policy of repression impact the dutch revolt? (nobility)

Answer 67

-Council of state deprived the dutch grandees of any significant political power
-leading nobles such as orange and Egmont felt disenfranchised as they had expected Philip to govern through them
-Nobles were infuriated by the prospect of church reforms as church offices provided them with an invaluable source of income and patronage
-1564, Egmont visited the Spanish court to discuss dutch demands including greater religious tolerance, Philip reassured him but gave false impression of his real intentions
-His rejection of dutch demands was made manifest in his letters from the Segovia woods 1565, after which the leading nobles withdrew from the council of state
-Alienating well-established nobles contributed to the growth of calvinism
-the signing of the 1565 compromise by 350 catholic and calvinist nobles, implored Philip to make religious concessions
-Catholic nobles were willing to make deals with calvinist rebels on account of their opposition to Albas fiscal policies
-1567 catholic group of nobles were determined to make religious concessions at the pacification of Ghent

Question 68

How did the role of governors affect the Netherlands negatively?

Answer 68

-Margaret of Parma was easily manipulated by nobility and granted full toleration under pressure
-Duke of Alba and Cardinal Granvelles brutal persecution of heretics was deeply resented and unsuccessful: policies damaged Spains reputation
-Albas enforcement of unpopular taxes deprived the states general of any role in administering taxes
-Spanish regime appeared to be reluctant to respect the privallegs and liberties of the dutch
-1573 Alba was dismissed and replaced by Luis De Requesens: showed inconsistency in government policy and hinted that Albas methods failed
-Philip authorised Requesens to abolish the new taxed and council of troubles
-Requesens felt pressure to negotiate with rebels as he realised the reconquest of Holland and Zeeland was a financial impossibility
-Requesens died and was replaced with Don John who was even more ineffective as he was more interested in preparing an invasion of England
-He intended to marry Mary queen of Scots: would be beneficial for spanish but expedition required funds that the Castilian treasury lacked

Question 69

How did the role of governors affect the Netherlands positively?

Answer 69

-Duke of Parma was a brilliant diplomat, managing to court the many southern nobles who were alarmed by calvinist attacks on towns
-1579 Parma signed the treaty of Arras with the southern Walloon Estates where he agreed to withdraw spanish and foreign troops from the provinces- mutually beneficial as allowed parma to employ those troops elsewhere where resistance to spain continued
-He proceeded to reduce the amount of resistance and secured increasing support through his diplomacy
-only few death sentences for treason and loyal noble were always rewarded
-Parma resorted to force and regained a number of towns: Brussels and Antwerp 1585
-Philip insisted on Spains unnecessary intervention in France so Parma was preoccupied with French affairs which encouraged dutch rebels
-Dutch rebels launched an effective campaign to regain the north-eastern provinces: Capture of Breda 1590 and Groningen 1594
-As a result, Calvinism was allowed to develop and alert its political identity
-The union of Utrecht 1579 laid strong foundations for the future, encouraging the development of a series of states increasingly calvinist and anti-spanish in policy

Question 70

What were Philips relations like with England?

Answer 70

-close economic ties
-formal diplomatic relations came to end in 1584
-Spanish ambassador, Mendoza was expelled accused of complicity in the Throckmorton plot to liberate Mary queen of Scots
-1585 treaty of nonsuch- Elizabeth agreed to provide rebels with military aid- £126,000 per annum
-breakdown of relations was also bc of English privateering in the Atlantic so Spains treasure fleets were seriously endangered

Question 71

What were the benefits of Spains relation with England for Philip?

Answer 71

-Philip was married to Mary Tudor when he succeeded the throne
-English troops had assisted the spanish in securing the French defeat at the battle of St Quentin in 1557
-Philip intervened to oppose Elizabeths excommunication- impressive given that tensions arose with some regularity eg. 1569 Spanish outraged by imprisonment of their ambassador in England and Francis Drakes circumnavigation of the world was partly funded by raiding spanish colonies

Question 72

Describe Philips conflict in Europe

Answer 72

-Philip considered launching an outright attack on England as he was tempted by the prospect of supporting English catholics financially, promoting the claim of Mary Queen of scots to the throne
-1573 Albas negotiations succeeded with the convention of Nijmegen, which included a mutual agreement on property seizures and restored trade between England and the low countries
-Spanish Armada 1588 was disaster and forced spain to rebuild her navy but spain still controlled the crossing to the Indies
-Armadas in 1596 and 1597 came to nothing due to storms
-Ineffectiveness of spanish opposition to England was mainly to do with Spains preoccupation with france
-England welcome the peace with spain
-Spanish communications and defences were as strong in the last 10 years of Philips reign as they had been in the 1560’s and American silver continued to fill the royal treasury

Question 73

What were the limitations of Philips relations with England?

Answer 73

-Philip was over-reliant on diplomacy and was too anxious about offending Elizabeth
-Englands actions were a constant source of provocation well before the 1580’s
-The seizure of spanish treasure on its way to Alba in the Netherlands 1568 led Alba to take retaliatory measures: Alba ordered the seizure of the goods of English subjects in the Low Countries and in spain and English fleets were detained in Biscay and Andalucia
-1580’s English privateers harassed spanish treasure fleets which weakened spain
-English expeditions led by Hawkins and Drake greatly disrupted spanish commerce particularly in the new world and rendered treasure fleets increasingly insecure
-Parma regained considerable control and England felt threatened by that especially once Antwerp fell to the spanish 1585
-Parma delayed intended attacks against Holland and Zeeland to devote all his resources on seizing the port of slums for the spanish fleet

Question 74

Why was the Spanish Armada 1588 a failure?

Answer 74

-poor weather
-Duke of Medina sidonia was appointed commander although he had limited naval experience
-Dual command of Medina Sidonia and Parma was problematic as its success depended on effective communications
-No clear strategy was put in place for the Armada to link up with Parmas army which was crucial to a land invasion of England
-spanish lacked a suitable deep water port, capable of taking the spanish galleons which exposed the armada
-1585 Philip told Parma that without a port, they could do nothing, spanish pressed ahead with the expedition
-Spanish handed advantage to English as they were unfamiliar with the channel, English managed to get windward of the spaniards thereby winning the advantageous weather position which allowed the English fleet to dictate the terms of the battle
-Armadas troops and sailors were weakened by their disunity- 6 languages spoken and friction between Castilians and Portuguese
-Spanish were pressurised by quality of English ships built according to new designs and with greater firepower
-Medina sidonias leadership saved a large part of the armada
-English prevented Spanish from meeting with Parma and forced them to return home via Scotland and Ireland
-Spain lost over 60 ships and 9000 men
-Philip learned English could not be overwhelmed
-Spanish naval dominance was under threat and 1589-91 there were 235 English vessels between the eastern Atlantic and the new world