for exam - ANNETTE Flashcards
what is language?
systematic and conventional use of sounds/signs/written symbols for the purpose of communication
what are the 4 components of language?
- phonology
- morphemes
- syntax
- pragmatics
what are phonemes?
the sound system of a language
what are morphemes?
combination of phonemes, smallest units of language that have meaning
what is syntax?
rules for combining words, putting morphemes together
what is pragmatics?
social rules about language/context
what are the 3 theories attributed to explaining language?
skinner - learning theory
chomsky - nativist
piaget/vygotsky - interactionist
what is skinner’s theory?
language develops through reinforcement and imitation, children repeat words that are reinforced
what are the pros and cons of skinner’s theory
pros - can account for phonology and semantics as these can be imitated
cons - cannot account for syntax or novelty - can’t imitate novel phrases
what is the ‘wug test’
provided children with new words and looked to see how children apply rules of language to a novel exemplar
they are skilled at it
what is chomsky’s theory?
language is biologically innate
what are the pros and cons of chomsky’s theory?
pros - there are language specific areas of the brain and certain genes associated with specific language abilities
language is universal and there are similarities in development
cons - underestimates role of environment
doesnt explain how language acquisition device works
what is piaget/vygotsky’s theory?
children are social beings and motivated to communicate so language develops through interactions
what are the pros and cons of piaget/vygotsky’s theory?
pros - children want to communicate even when they dont have words
learning through overhearing and listening
use the environment to help communicate
cons - process needs to be understood more
what occurs in the process of word learning at 10 months?
babies have less than 50 words
learned through repetition and attentional mechanisms
what occurs in the process of word learning at 12 months?
linguistics and social cues used to learn new word meanings
first words pronounced
holophrastic - single word sentences
what occurs in the process of word learning at 18-24 months?
vocab spurt to 150 words
variability in quantity and quality
what occurs in the process of word learning at 2-5 years?
more growth in syntax
comprehension and production have continuous growth
what is quine’s problem of reference?
if you don’t have a starting point or a shared language with anyone, you have to figure out what words mean
what are 4 influences on the learning of words?
- general learning mechanisms
- biases/constraints
- linguistic context
- social pragmatics
what are general learning mechanisms?
associations are formed between words and objects through exposure
perceptual salience - attaching a word to something that is most obvious in the context
what whole object bias?
babies assume a word applies to the whole object
what is mutual exclusivity?
babies assume objects only have one name
what is shape bias?
babies can extend words from one novel object to objects of like kind
what did the ‘dax’ experiment study and find?
studied shape bias
exemplar taught as dax
4 different conditions varying shape/texture/size
children asked which shape was still a dax
different shapes were not the same category but size and texture change were the same category
what is linguistic context?
using context to figure out what words mean
what did Brown (1957) study and find?
how context shapes understanding of words
showed children a picture telling them it was a ‘sib’ then asked them to point to what was the sib
sentence structure helps them understand
what are social pragmatics?
social cues provided by speakers eg. gaze, intentions, knowledge
useful in ambiguous situations
what did Dare Baldwin’s gaze study find?
eye gaze is indicative of which word corresponds to an object
important for indicating intention
what did Tomasello study and find?
use of intention
said to kids ‘let’s dax mickey’
2 conditions - statement followed by whoops (accidental) or there (intentional)
children more likely to learn word with intention that follows
what is selective trust and word learning?
children are less likely to learn from ignorant/inaccurate speakers
children do not want to learn incorrect words for fear of not being able to communicate
what is conventionality and word learning?
words are effective communicative tools because they are shared by people in their linguistic community
what are the 4 realisations required to understand that words are conventional?
- words have correct meanings
- words are shared
- words are special
- word meanings are tied to linguistic communities
what is the evidence that words have correct meanings?
Koenig & Echols (2003)
- showed babies a duck and a speaker looked at it and called it either a cat or a duck
- babies more frustrated towards cat speaker
- when speakers could not see object, babies not frustrated with either
- shows babies expect people to use correct words for things
what is the evidence that word meanings are shared?
Henderson & Woodward (2012)
- show babies a person with 2 novel objects, one of them labelled modi
new person comes in and picked up same or different object and called it modi
- babies looked longer when different object called modi - showed they expect others to use same word
what is the evidence that word meanings are special?
Henderson & Woodward (2012)
- object reacted positively towards
- another person comes in and reacts positively to either the same or different object
- babies are not surprised, do not generalise preferences
what is the evidence that word meanings are only shared within a particular linguistic group?
Scott & Henderson (2013)
- induction - 2 people singing song in different langauges
- habituation - one speaker picks up object and labels it
- then same speaker picks up the same or different object and labels it
- different condition where different speaker picks up and labels
- babies know she speaks a different language so no difference in attention compared to difference in attention with same person
what is personality?
combination of attributes, motives, values and behaviours unique to an individual
what is self concept?
how you perceive your own attributes and traits
what is self esteem?
evaluation of self worth based on the self perceptions that make up your self concept
what is identity?
overall sense of who you are and where you fit into society
what 5 things is personality shaped by?
- biology
- dispositional traits - endure over time
- characteristic adaptations - how we adapt to specific situations
- narrative identities - made through past + future
- human nature, culture, context
what are 3 factors of personality traits?
- variable across individuals
- stable across development but not in universal stages
- heritable, early emerging
what is the big 5?
OCEAN openness conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism
what is HEXACO?
honesty-humility emotionality extraversion agreeableness conscientiousness openness
what occurs at 6 months on the timeline of emergence of self?
infants distinguish themselves from the rest of the world and appreciate that they can act on their external world
what did Bahrick & Watson study and find
infants recognising themselves as individuals
babies sit in chair with legs covered and shown a tv of their legs and another set of legs
babies looked longer at the screen that wasnt their legs, familiar with their own body moving
what occurs at 12 months on the timeline of emergence of self?
infants distinguish themselves from other individuals
appreciate individuals have different perspectives
realise attention can be shared
what occurs at 18-24 months on the timeline of emergence of self?
emergence of categorical self (me vs. you)
recognise themselves as individuals
what did the mirror task study and find?
how ingrained is understanding of face and self?
children required to look in a normal and convex mirror and take a sticker off their head
no significant difference between either for either age group
what did the video task study and find?
same as mirror but with a normal and pixelated video covering face
children did worse in the pixelated video
what are 5 factors that contribute to early self awareness?
- cognitive development
- brain development
- social interaction
- attachment
- culture
what are 3 differences in self concept between childhood and adulthood?
- descriptions of self move from physical attributes to more psychological and enduring qualities
- self portraits move from comparisons to others to more abstract
- greater self awareness in adulthood
what are the differences in self esteem between childhood and adolescence?
childhood - self esteem generally stable unless ideal self does not live up to actual self
adulthood - self esteem drops because of insecurity, puberty etc. experiencing adolescence fully helps with this
how can parents help their children’s self esteem?
encourage and support but not turn a blind eye to children’s weaknesses
what 4 things happen to self esteem in adulthood?
ideal self more aligned with present self
more positive about past self
self esteem consistent across adulthood
changes in goals and standards
what is temperament?
biologically based tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events
foundation of personality
who are the 3 theorists for temperament?
Thomas & Chess
Kagan
Rothbart
what did Thomas & Chess theorise?
easiness and difficultness
babies are easy (40%) - even tempered, open adaptable
difficult (10%) - active, irritable, cry
slow to warm up (15%) - slightly inactive and moody
what did Kagan theorise?
behavioural inhibition - how active a child is in new situations
50% - shy in new situations
10% - not shy or restrained
how is Kagan’s theory shown through development?
there is continuity of shyness/not shyness through adolescence
different activations in brain cause shyness or not
anxiety linked to overprotective parents
what did Rothbart theorise?
surgency, negative affect, effortful control
surgency - actively approach new situations in emotionally positive way
negative affect - sad, fearful, irritable
effortful control - how able is child to regulate emotions?
how do temperaments persist across a lifetime?
shy and fearful - removed in childhood and potentially depressed in adulthood
hard to control - high impulsiveness as teenager, prison as adult
easy going - easy going lifetime
how does culture effect temperament?
certain temperaments are celebrated more in different cultures through parenting
what 3 things cause stability in temperament?
- heredity
- foundations laid in childhood
- gene environment correlations
what 4 things cause change in temperament?
- biological factors/injury
- environment change
- mid life crisis
- not fitting with current environment
what is an ethnic-racial identity?
identification with a particular ethnic group
what are the 4 stages in identity formation?
- identity diffusion - no thoughts about identity
- foreclosure - no thoughts but seem to have identity
- moratorium - identity crisis
- identity achievement - resolution of crisis
what 4 things contribute to identity formation?
- cognitive growth
- personality
- relationship with parents
- cultural context
what is positive self bias?
we see ourselves in a positive way and think negative stereotypes do not aply
what is social role hypothesis?
male and females play certain roles in society and this fuels stereotypes
which study examples gender stereotypes?
hospital - babies dressed in different colours and observed how adults treated them/talked about them
what are gender roles?
patterns of behaviour that females and males should adopt in a particular society
what are gender norms?
desirable behaviours/characteristics associated with each gender
what are stereotypes?
overgeneralised and largely inaccurate beliefs about what males and females are like
which 3 theories are used to explain gender role development?
- biosocial - hormone changes intensify differences
- social learning - parents and peers differentiate genders (same sex stick together)
- cognitive theories - organised set of beliefs and expectations about a gender (gender schema)
how is social learning theory seen in gender role development from birth-3 years?
- babies behave in gender stereotyped ways in play
- children learn from what is being modelled to them (differential reinforcement)
- observational learning = internalise parents views
how is social learning theory seen in gender role development from 3-6 years?
stereotype rigidity is strong, believe stereotyped occupations are better
gender typed behaviour
prefer to play with same sex children
how are cognitive theories seen in gender role development from 7-puberty?
less rigid in stereotypes
view gender as a trait that remains stable and consistent across development
how does gender role development change in adolescence/adulthood?
more rigid in norms as dating emerges
less differentiation in roles when marriage + children occur
