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PSYCH 326 > for exam - ANNETTE > Flashcards

for exam - ANNETTE Flashcards

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1
Q

what is language?

A

systematic and conventional use of sounds/signs/written symbols for the purpose of communication

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2
Q

what are the 4 components of language?

A
  1. phonology
  2. morphemes
  3. syntax
  4. pragmatics
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3
Q

what are phonemes?

A

the sound system of a language

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4
Q

what are morphemes?

A

combination of phonemes, smallest units of language that have meaning

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5
Q

what is syntax?

A

rules for combining words, putting morphemes together

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6
Q

what is pragmatics?

A

social rules about language/context

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7
Q

what are the 3 theories attributed to explaining language?

A

skinner - learning theory
chomsky - nativist
piaget/vygotsky - interactionist

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8
Q

what is skinner’s theory?

A

language develops through reinforcement and imitation, children repeat words that are reinforced

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9
Q

what are the pros and cons of skinner’s theory

A

pros - can account for phonology and semantics as these can be imitated
cons - cannot account for syntax or novelty - can’t imitate novel phrases

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10
Q

what is the ‘wug test’

A

provided children with new words and looked to see how children apply rules of language to a novel exemplar
they are skilled at it

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11
Q

what is chomsky’s theory?

A

language is biologically innate

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12
Q

what are the pros and cons of chomsky’s theory?

A

pros - there are language specific areas of the brain and certain genes associated with specific language abilities
language is universal and there are similarities in development
cons - underestimates role of environment
doesnt explain how language acquisition device works

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13
Q

what is piaget/vygotsky’s theory?

A

children are social beings and motivated to communicate so language develops through interactions

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14
Q

what are the pros and cons of piaget/vygotsky’s theory?

A

pros - children want to communicate even when they dont have words
learning through overhearing and listening
use the environment to help communicate
cons - process needs to be understood more

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15
Q

what occurs in the process of word learning at 10 months?

A

babies have less than 50 words

learned through repetition and attentional mechanisms

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16
Q

what occurs in the process of word learning at 12 months?

A

linguistics and social cues used to learn new word meanings
first words pronounced
holophrastic - single word sentences

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17
Q

what occurs in the process of word learning at 18-24 months?

A

vocab spurt to 150 words

variability in quantity and quality

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18
Q

what occurs in the process of word learning at 2-5 years?

A

more growth in syntax

comprehension and production have continuous growth

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19
Q

what is quine’s problem of reference?

A

if you don’t have a starting point or a shared language with anyone, you have to figure out what words mean

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20
Q

what are 4 influences on the learning of words?

A
  1. general learning mechanisms
  2. biases/constraints
  3. linguistic context
  4. social pragmatics
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21
Q

what are general learning mechanisms?

A

associations are formed between words and objects through exposure
perceptual salience - attaching a word to something that is most obvious in the context

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22
Q

what whole object bias?

A

babies assume a word applies to the whole object

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23
Q

what is mutual exclusivity?

A

babies assume objects only have one name

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24
Q

what is shape bias?

A

babies can extend words from one novel object to objects of like kind

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25
Q

what did the ‘dax’ experiment study and find?

A

studied shape bias
exemplar taught as dax
4 different conditions varying shape/texture/size
children asked which shape was still a dax
different shapes were not the same category but size and texture change were the same category

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26
Q

what is linguistic context?

A

using context to figure out what words mean

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27
Q

what did Brown (1957) study and find?

A

how context shapes understanding of words
showed children a picture telling them it was a ‘sib’ then asked them to point to what was the sib
sentence structure helps them understand

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28
Q

what are social pragmatics?

A

social cues provided by speakers eg. gaze, intentions, knowledge
useful in ambiguous situations

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29
Q

what did Dare Baldwin’s gaze study find?

A

eye gaze is indicative of which word corresponds to an object
important for indicating intention

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30
Q

what did Tomasello study and find?

A

use of intention
said to kids ‘let’s dax mickey’
2 conditions - statement followed by whoops (accidental) or there (intentional)
children more likely to learn word with intention that follows

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31
Q

what is selective trust and word learning?

A

children are less likely to learn from ignorant/inaccurate speakers
children do not want to learn incorrect words for fear of not being able to communicate

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32
Q

what is conventionality and word learning?

A

words are effective communicative tools because they are shared by people in their linguistic community

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33
Q

what are the 4 realisations required to understand that words are conventional?

A
  1. words have correct meanings
  2. words are shared
  3. words are special
  4. word meanings are tied to linguistic communities
34
Q

what is the evidence that words have correct meanings?

A

Koenig & Echols (2003)

  • showed babies a duck and a speaker looked at it and called it either a cat or a duck
  • babies more frustrated towards cat speaker
  • when speakers could not see object, babies not frustrated with either
  • shows babies expect people to use correct words for things
35
Q

what is the evidence that word meanings are shared?

A

Henderson & Woodward (2012)
- show babies a person with 2 novel objects, one of them labelled modi
new person comes in and picked up same or different object and called it modi
- babies looked longer when different object called modi - showed they expect others to use same word

36
Q

what is the evidence that word meanings are special?

A

Henderson & Woodward (2012)

  • object reacted positively towards
  • another person comes in and reacts positively to either the same or different object
  • babies are not surprised, do not generalise preferences
37
Q

what is the evidence that word meanings are only shared within a particular linguistic group?

A

Scott & Henderson (2013)

  • induction - 2 people singing song in different langauges
  • habituation - one speaker picks up object and labels it
  • then same speaker picks up the same or different object and labels it
  • different condition where different speaker picks up and labels
  • babies know she speaks a different language so no difference in attention compared to difference in attention with same person
38
Q

what is personality?

A

combination of attributes, motives, values and behaviours unique to an individual

39
Q

what is self concept?

A

how you perceive your own attributes and traits

40
Q

what is self esteem?

A

evaluation of self worth based on the self perceptions that make up your self concept

41
Q

what is identity?

A

overall sense of who you are and where you fit into society

42
Q

what 5 things is personality shaped by?

A
  1. biology
  2. dispositional traits - endure over time
  3. characteristic adaptations - how we adapt to specific situations
  4. narrative identities - made through past + future
  5. human nature, culture, context
43
Q

what are 3 factors of personality traits?

A
  1. variable across individuals
  2. stable across development but not in universal stages
  3. heritable, early emerging
44
Q

what is the big 5?

A 
OCEAN 
openness
conscientiousness
extraversion
agreeableness
neuroticism
45
Q

what is HEXACO?

A 
honesty-humility
emotionality
extraversion
agreeableness
conscientiousness
openness
46
Q

what occurs at 6 months on the timeline of emergence of self?

A

infants distinguish themselves from the rest of the world and appreciate that they can act on their external world

47
Q

what did Bahrick & Watson study and find

A

infants recognising themselves as individuals
babies sit in chair with legs covered and shown a tv of their legs and another set of legs
babies looked longer at the screen that wasnt their legs, familiar with their own body moving

48
Q

what occurs at 12 months on the timeline of emergence of self?

A

infants distinguish themselves from other individuals
appreciate individuals have different perspectives
realise attention can be shared

49
Q

what occurs at 18-24 months on the timeline of emergence of self?

A

emergence of categorical self (me vs. you)

recognise themselves as individuals

50
Q

what did the mirror task study and find?

A

how ingrained is understanding of face and self?
children required to look in a normal and convex mirror and take a sticker off their head
no significant difference between either for either age group

51
Q

what did the video task study and find?

A

same as mirror but with a normal and pixelated video covering face
children did worse in the pixelated video

52
Q

what are 5 factors that contribute to early self awareness?

A
  1. cognitive development
  2. brain development
  3. social interaction
  4. attachment
  5. culture
53
Q

what are 3 differences in self concept between childhood and adulthood?

A
  1. descriptions of self move from physical attributes to more psychological and enduring qualities
  2. self portraits move from comparisons to others to more abstract
  3. greater self awareness in adulthood
54
Q

what are the differences in self esteem between childhood and adolescence?

A

childhood - self esteem generally stable unless ideal self does not live up to actual self
adulthood - self esteem drops because of insecurity, puberty etc. experiencing adolescence fully helps with this

55
Q

how can parents help their children’s self esteem?

A

encourage and support but not turn a blind eye to children’s weaknesses

56
Q

what 4 things happen to self esteem in adulthood?

A

ideal self more aligned with present self
more positive about past self
self esteem consistent across adulthood
changes in goals and standards

57
Q

what is temperament?

A

biologically based tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events
foundation of personality

58
Q

who are the 3 theorists for temperament?

A

Thomas & Chess
Kagan
Rothbart

59
Q

what did Thomas & Chess theorise?

A

easiness and difficultness
babies are easy (40%) - even tempered, open adaptable
difficult (10%) - active, irritable, cry
slow to warm up (15%) - slightly inactive and moody

60
Q

what did Kagan theorise?

A

behavioural inhibition - how active a child is in new situations
50% - shy in new situations
10% - not shy or restrained

61
Q

how is Kagan’s theory shown through development?

A

there is continuity of shyness/not shyness through adolescence
different activations in brain cause shyness or not
anxiety linked to overprotective parents

62
Q

what did Rothbart theorise?

A

surgency, negative affect, effortful control
surgency - actively approach new situations in emotionally positive way
negative affect - sad, fearful, irritable
effortful control - how able is child to regulate emotions?

63
Q

how do temperaments persist across a lifetime?

A

shy and fearful - removed in childhood and potentially depressed in adulthood
hard to control - high impulsiveness as teenager, prison as adult
easy going - easy going lifetime

64
Q

how does culture effect temperament?

A

certain temperaments are celebrated more in different cultures through parenting

65
Q

what 3 things cause stability in temperament?

A
  1. heredity
  2. foundations laid in childhood
  3. gene environment correlations
66
Q

what 4 things cause change in temperament?

A
  1. biological factors/injury
  2. environment change
  3. mid life crisis
  4. not fitting with current environment
67
Q

what is an ethnic-racial identity?

A

identification with a particular ethnic group

68
Q

what are the 4 stages in identity formation?

A
  1. identity diffusion - no thoughts about identity
  2. foreclosure - no thoughts but seem to have identity
  3. moratorium - identity crisis
  4. identity achievement - resolution of crisis
69
Q

what 4 things contribute to identity formation?

A
  1. cognitive growth
  2. personality
  3. relationship with parents
  4. cultural context
70
Q

what is positive self bias?

A

we see ourselves in a positive way and think negative stereotypes do not aply

71
Q

what is social role hypothesis?

A

male and females play certain roles in society and this fuels stereotypes

72
Q

which study examples gender stereotypes?

A

hospital - babies dressed in different colours and observed how adults treated them/talked about them

73
Q

what are gender roles?

A

patterns of behaviour that females and males should adopt in a particular society

74
Q

what are gender norms?

A

desirable behaviours/characteristics associated with each gender

75
Q

what are stereotypes?

A

overgeneralised and largely inaccurate beliefs about what males and females are like

76
Q

which 3 theories are used to explain gender role development?

A
  1. biosocial - hormone changes intensify differences
  2. social learning - parents and peers differentiate genders (same sex stick together)
  3. cognitive theories - organised set of beliefs and expectations about a gender (gender schema)
77
Q

how is social learning theory seen in gender role development from birth-3 years?

A
  • babies behave in gender stereotyped ways in play
  • children learn from what is being modelled to them (differential reinforcement)
  • observational learning = internalise parents views
78
Q

how is social learning theory seen in gender role development from 3-6 years?

A

stereotype rigidity is strong, believe stereotyped occupations are better
gender typed behaviour
prefer to play with same sex children

79
Q

how are cognitive theories seen in gender role development from 7-puberty?

A

less rigid in stereotypes

view gender as a trait that remains stable and consistent across development

80
Q

how does gender role development change in adolescence/adulthood?

A

more rigid in norms as dating emerges

less differentiation in roles when marriage + children occur

PSYCH 326 (4 decks)

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