FL #2 Test Review

Question 1

Parallel Play

Answer 1

Parallel play is a normal part of the behavior of preschool children, in which they will play by themselves but observe another child playing and adjust their behavior in response.

Parallel play does not entail direct interaction between the children.

As children reach school age, they are much more likely to engage in forms of play together.

Question 2

Socialization

Answer 2

Socialization is the process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one’s society, and mass media (such as popular music) is one source of normal socialization.

Question 3

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Answer 3

Asserts that the physiological arousal and the subjective feeling of an emotion arise from different parts of the brain and are separate and independent of one another.

Question 4

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Pre-Operational Stage

Answer 4

> Ages 2-7 are in the pre-operational stage of development.

> Children learn to operate symbolically and engage in a lot of symbolic play (e.g., stick is a sword, a plastic toy is a cake, a doll is a person, etc).

> Children in the pre-operational stage operate egocentrically and are likely unable to understand the perspective of another child.

Question 5

Reliability and validity of a test (e.g., ACT & SAT)

Answer 5

Reliability (consistency)
Validity (accuracy)

A test can be reliable but not valid - think of a bathroom scale. If you step on it every day and the weight is the same but wrong, the test has high reliability (consistency) but low validity (accuracy).

Question 6

Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification

Answer 6

Functionalist theories assert that aspects of culture are necessary and need-based.

Functionalism (or functional analysis): is the study of the structure and function of each part of society.

Functionalist Theorists use the term FUNCTION to refer to the beneficial consequences of people’s actions. Functions help keep society in balance.

Dysfunctions: are harmful consequences of people’s actions as they undermine a social system’s equilibrium.

Question 7

Symbolic Interactionism

Answer 7

Is the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols.

The central idea of symbolic interactionism is that symbols - that is, things to which we attach meaning - are the key to understanding how we view the world and communicate with one another.

These symbols do not always match across cultures, thus, part of ACCULTURATION is learning the appropriate symbols and their use in a given culture.

Question 8

Conflict Theory

Answer 8

Based on the works of Karl Marx.

Focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differentials contribute to the maintenance of social order.

Further, power differentials can lead to the dominance of a particular group if it successfully outcompetes other groups for economic, political, and social resources.

Conflict Theory -> states that individuals compete with each other in society over limited resources.

[in the sociological context, power refers to a from of influence over other people]

Question 9

Cultural Relativism

Answer 9

Is the principle that a person’s beliefs and health behaviors should be understood in the context of their own culture.

Health Disparity could be decreased by increasing Cultural Relativism.

Question 10

Mores

Answer 10

Are norms that are deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society and have consequences if violated.

E.g., health behaviors (like seeking help for an acute medical illness) are standards of behavior that are necessary for the well-being of everyone; if a person does not seek help, they may be shunned by family members or friends.

Question 11

Folkways

Answer 11

Are norms that govern everyday behavior.

e.g., holding a door open for someone, shaking hands after a sports game

Question 12

Test-Retest Bias

Answer 12

Can happen when participants in a study take the same exam over and over again, which affects their responses.

Question 13

Researcher Bias

Answer 13

Occurs when a study’s design is biased.

Question 14

Attrition Bias

Answer 14

Is when participants drop our of a study over time, which affects the results.

Question 15

Social Desirability Bias

Answer 15

Social science research term that describes the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably, or socially acceptable.

It can take the form of over-reporting “good behavior” or under-reporting “bad”, or undesirable behavior.

People answer questions in a way they think is socially beneficial to them.

Question 16

Kinship of Affinity

Answer 16

Is one in which individuals are related by choice, such as through marriage, rather than through blood.

e.g., a husband and wife merging their children from a previous marriage.

Question 17

What could cause Country A to have a higher mortality rate but also be higher in all other measures of quality of life compared to Country B?

A. Country A has a higher immigrant population.

B. Country A has a higher median age than Country B.

C. Country A has a higher fertility rate than Country B.

D. Country A has a higher infant mortality rate than Country B.

Answer 17

B is correct: having a higher median age suggests that people are more likely to die from age-related causes, leading to a higher mortality rate. However, affluent countries tend to have higher median ages than less affluent countries.

A - a higher immigrant population is not related to either factor.

C - higher fertility rates tend to be associated with lower quality of life indicators.

D - higher infant mortality is associated with lower quality of life indicators.

Question 18

What characteristics of society are associated with high levels of anomie?

I. rapid changes in society
II. low levels of income
III. high heterogeneity

A. I and II only
B. I and III only
C. II and III only
D. I, II, and III

Answer 18

D is correct: anomie refers to society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness. All of the characteristics listed are associated with anomie.

Question 19

Anomie

Answer 19

Anomie refers to society feeling fragmented and lacking cohesiveness.

A state of normlessness; anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation.

Question 20

Availability Heuristic

Answer 20

People make judgments overly based on information that is immediately available to them.

A shortcut in decision-making that relies on the information that is most readily available , rather than the total body of information on a subject.

Question 21

Self-Serving Bias

Answer 21

A person interprets things in a way to bolster self-esteem, including how they carry out attribution.

The idea that individuals will view their own success as being based on internal factors, while viewing failures as being based on external factors.

Question 22

Which of the following is a biological factor among all adolescents that could contribute to risky behaviors in adolescence?

A. Undeveloped hippocampus

B. Lack of neural plasticity

C. Undeveloped prefrontal cortex

D. Poor parental support

Answer 22

C is correct: The prefrontal cortices of adolescents are still developing. Much executive decision-making, such as considering risk and making choices, takes place in this area.

Question 23

What part of the brain is likely to be more active while playing a song on the piano for the thousandth time from memory in comparison to playing if for the first time while reading the sheet music?

A. frontal lobe
B. temporal lobe
C. cerebellum
D. parietal lobe

Answer 23

C is correct: the cerebellum is responsible for muscle memory and coordination. When playing the song for the thousandth time, it will be played mostly from muscle memory.

A - frontal lobe is primarily involved in reward, planning, motivation, and inhibitions. It also houses the motor cortex which controls movement, but that is likely to be equally activated regardless of how well known the piece of music is known.

B - the temporal lobe is involved in memory, but this sort of muscle memory is more likely to be cerebellar in nature.

D - the parietal lobe is involved primarily in regulating and interpreting sensory data and would not be more active while playing a well known piece.

Question 24

Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Emotion

Answer 24

Individuals make different interpretations about stimuli, such as interpreting stigma negatively or non-negatively.

Cognitive Appraisal of Stress –> is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.

Primary Appraisal - is the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat.

Secondary Appraisal - is directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress.

Question 25

Thinning - in terms of Operant Conditioning

Answer 25

Thinning refers to reducing the frequency of rewards for a given action.

Question 26

Fading - in terms of Operant Conditioning

Answer 26

Fading refers to reducing the prompts used to remind participants to take medication.

Question 27

In respect to peer relationships and self-esteem, late physical maturation in pubescents has been found to have which of the following effects?

A. positive effects for females and positive effects for males.

B. Positive effects for females and negative effects for males.

C. Negative effects for females and positive effects for males.

D. Negative effects for females and negative effects for males.

Answer 27

B is correct: Females tend to benefit from maturing later, due in part to feeling less self-conscious about body image. In contrast, males tend to feel more self-conscious if they develop later.

Question 28

A student has never been very good at math and is struggling in his algebra course; additionally, this student is pressured by his parents to work more hours at a job rather than do homework. What issues does the student experience?

A. role strain about getting good grades and role conflict about working more hours.

B. role conflict about getting good grades and role strain about working more hours.

C. role exit about getting good grades and role conflict about working more hours.

D. role conflict about getting good grades and role exit about working more hours.

Answer 28

A is correct:
- Role Strain involves a problem fitting into an existing role, such as the student’s problem with good grades.

 - Role Conflict involves two roles coming into conflict, such as when the student experiences conflict as a student and worker. 

Recall: Role Exit involves leaving a role.

Question 29

How could researchers design a study to specifically determine whether there is institutional, but not individual, discrimination at a particular organization?

A. Compare the demographics of individuals hired at the organization with the demographics at similar organizations.

B. Compare the demographics of individuals hired by several hiring directors within the organization.

C. Neither A nor B.

D. Both A and B together.

Answer 29

D is correct:
- Method A could show that there is a difference between organizations with regard to hiring practices, which implies institutional discrimination.

 - Method B could show that no individual discrimination is present.

Question 30

Which of the following is an example of how altruistic behavior can improve inclusive fitness?

A. Helping others leading to an increase in one’s own self-esteem.

B. Having a large number of offspring leading to propagation of one’s genes.

C. An animal making noise to alert its brood that there is a predator.

D. A soldier sacrificing himself to save his fellow soldiers.

Answer 30

C is correct: Inclusive fitness involves an animal behaving in ways that ensures the propagation of its genes. An animal alerting its brood that there is a predator puts that animal at risk, but ensures that its may survive via its offspring.

Question 31

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Answer 31

1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2): focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions. Object permanence ends this stage.
2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 7): focuses on symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration (the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation).
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11): focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical (concrete) objects.
4. Formal Operational Stage (starts at about 11 years of age): focuses on abstract through and problem-solving. Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas.

Question 32

Erikson’s Stages of Personality Development

Answer 32

Are based on a series of crises that derive from conflicts between needs and social demands.

Erikson viewed successful resolution of a stage, marked by answering an essential existential question, to imbue an individual with skills and traits that are carried through subsequent stages.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year): Can I trust the world?
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years): Is it okay to be me?
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years): Can I make it in the world of people and things?
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-20 years): Who am I? What can I be?
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20-40 years): Can I love?
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40-65 years): Can I make my life count?
8. Integrity vs. Despair (65 years to death): Is it okay to have been me?

Question 33

The Kubler-Ross Model series of stages that most people experience when facing the end of their life.

Answer 33

Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance

DABDA - Death Always Brings Definite Acceptance

Question 34

Primary Aging

Answer 34

Describes the aging of biological factors and the physical body.

Question 35

Secondary Aging

Answer 35

Describes aging that relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise.

Question 36

Within-Subject Design and Between-Subjects Design

Answer 36

Within-subjects design experiments typically have considerably more power than between-subjects designs because within-subjects designs are typically more able to detect an effect on the independent variable than are between-subjects design.

Within-Subject design allows for control of sociodemographic factors, trait factors, and genetic factors.

Question 37

General Adaption Syndrome

Answer 37

When subjected to stress, the body initially responds via the sympathetic nervous system. The “fight-or-flight” response initiates an increase in heart rate and decrease in digestion, with all available energy being reserved for reacting to the stressful event. The sequence of physiological responses is called the general adaptation syndrome.

1. Alarm (or the initial reaction to a stressor and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system).
2. Resistance - in which the continuous release of hormones allows the sympathetic nervous system to remain engaged to fight the stressor.
3. Exhaustion - when the body can no longer maintain an elevated response with sympathetic nervous system activity.

Question 38

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

Answer 38

Cognitive Appraisal of Stress - is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress.

Stage 1 - Primary Appraisal - is the initial evaluation of the environment and the associated threat. This appraisal can be identified as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful. If primary appraisal reveals a threat, stage 2 appraisal begins.

Stage 2 - Secondary Appraisal - is directed at evaluating whether the organism can cope with the stress. Evaluation of 3 things:

• harm (or damage caused by the event)
• threat (or the potential for future damage caused by the event)
• challenge (or the potential to overcome and possibly benefit from the event)

Question 39

Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis (or theory)

Answer 39

Hypothesis that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry.

This activation can mimic incoming sensory information, and may also consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences.

The cortex then tries to stitch this unrelated information together, resulting in a dream that is both bizarre and somewhat familiar.

Question 40

The House Money Effect

Answer 40

Thaler and Johnson found that individual risk-taking behavior is affected by prior gains and losses. They found that after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk. this became known as the house money effect.

Question 41

What would be a possible ratio level measure of religiosity?

A. Whether or not a person believes in God
B. The type of religion with which a person identifies
C. The degree of one’s belief in afterlife
D. The number of times a person has been to church in the last month

Answer 41

D is correct: a ratio level of measurement is one in which there are a range of quantitative responses, ordered at equally-spaced intervals, and with it being possible to score 0 (complete absence of the quantity).

A: this is a binary nominal level of measurement.

B: this is a nominal level of measurement.

C: this is an ordinal or interval level of measurement, without the possibility of a measurement of 0.

Question 42

An individual who scores highly on a measure of positive feeling towards the culture to which he immigrated and low on a measure of positive feelings towards his native culture would likely be employing what strategy of acculturation?

A: assimilation
B: separation
C: marginalization
D: integration

Answer 42

A is Correct - assimilation is a strategy in which the individual seeks to interact with the new culture and reject the native culture.

B: separation is rejecting the new culture and maintaining the native culture.

C: marginalization involves the rejection of both cultures.

D: integration involves identifying with both cultures.

Question 43

Anomie Theory

Answer 43

States that individuals who experience weakened social values are less likely to behave in ways that are helpful to that society.

Question 44

Relative Deprivation Theory

Answer 44

Posits that individuals who perceive themselves as having less resources than others will often act in ways to obtain these resources.

Question 45

General Strain Theory

Answer 45

Holds that individuals who have experienced negative events feel negative motions, which lead to negative behaviors.

Question 46

Parietal Lobe

Answer 46

Integrates sensory information across a number of modalities, from spatial sense and navigation (proprioception) to temperature (thermoreceptors) and touch (mechaanorecpetors).

Question 47

Frontal Lobe

Answer 47

Is primarily involved in controlling cognitive skills, such as emotion, expression, judgment, problem solving, and sexual behavior.

Question 48

Reciprocal Determinism

Answer 48

Is the theory set forth by Albert Bandua that a person’s behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment.

Question 49

Social Cognitive Theory

Answer 49

Asserts that people learn by watching others, and if they see someone is rewarded for a behavior, they are more likely to behave that way too.

Question 50

The media portrayal of shoppers who are violent and aggressive or who misbehave on Black Friday in order to shame or ridicule them is an example of what type of social control?

A. Formal Positive Sanction
B. Formal Negative Sanction
C. Informal Negative Sanction
D. Informal Positive Sanction

Answer 50

C is correct: An informal sanction is an action by a peer or group of peers that is meant to make behavior more normative. It usually involves shaming or ridicule, which is considered a punishment. When the media shames people who engage in non-normative behavior (acting like a jerk while shopping), they are trying to enforce norms in an informal way.

A - a formal positive sanction is an official reward for an action or behavior. For example, individuals who help others in a crisis are often given a reward or a medal for doing so.

B - a formal negative sanction is an official punishment for an action or behavior; for example, a customer who was violent with others may be banned from a store for life - this is a consequence enforced by a group or organization, the business or store.

D - the media did not reward the behavior exhibited, so this is not a positive sanction.

Question 51

Protectionism

Answer 51

Refers to a country rejecting trade with others and being isolative, which is inversely proportional to globalization.