FL #1 Test Review

Question 1

Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation

Answer 1

Drive Reduction Theory –> explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states.

Primary Drives –> motivate us to sustain necessary biological processes (homeostasis).

Secondary Drives –> NOT directly related to biological processes. Motivate us to fulfill non-biological (usually emotional) desires. Thought to stem from learning.

**drives help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve the internal tension created by unmet needs.

Question 2

Motivation

Answer 2

Motivation is the purpose, or driving force, behind our actions.

Extrinsic Motivation - can include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved. (e.g., working hard to get praise from boss, practicing a sport to perform well in upcoming game, and studying to achieve a high score)

Intrinsic Motivation - can be driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment. (e.g., a student who has an interest in the subject matter and has the goal of mastering the content is driven by intrinsic motivation, but the goal of achieving high grades is considered extrinsic).

Primary Views of motivation include instincts that elicit natural behavior, the desire to maintain optimal levels of arousal, the drive to reduce uncomfortable states, and the goal of satisfying physiological and psychological needs.

Question 3

Instinct Theory of Motivation

Answer 3

Instinct Theory of Motivation - people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionary programmed instincts.

** Was the first theory to describe motivation (William McDougall) and was derived from Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

Question 4

Arousal Theory of Motivation

Answer 4

Arousal Theory - states that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above their optimum level.

Yerkes-Dodson Law –> states that performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level.
> lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks
> higher levels are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina

simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks

Question 5

Need-Based Theories of Motivation

Answer 5

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow theorized that if the lowest level of need is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority.

Physiological > safety > love/belonging > esteem > self-actualization

*Self-Determination Theory (SDT)*
SDT emphasizes the role of three universal needs:
1. autonomy
2. competence
3. relatedness

Question 6

Incentive Theory of Motivation

Answer 6

Explains that behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments.

Question 7

Expectancy-Value Theory of Motivation

Answer 7

States that the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of BOTH the individual’s:

1. expectation of success in reaching the goal and,
2. the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal.

Question 8

The 4 primary factors that influence motivation.

Answer 8

> instincts
arousal
drives
needs

Question 9

The strongest natural stimuli of motivation.

Answer 9

Hunger

Question 10

Opponent-Process Theory of Motivation

Answer 10

A theory of motivation that explains continuous drug use.

This theory explains that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing it physiology.

This theory can also explain TOLERANCE: a decrease in perceived drug effect over time.

Question 11

3 most commonly used psychoactive substances in the United States.

Answer 11

> alcohol
caffeine
nicotine

Question 12

3 elements of emotion

Answer 12

Emotion –> is a natural instinctive state of mind derived from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.

> physiological response - when a feeling is first experienced, arousal is stimulated by the sutonomic nervous system.
behavioral response - components of an emotion include facial expressions and body language.
cognitive response - components of an emotion is the subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced, and memories of past experiences.

Question 13

Self-Efficacy

Answer 13

Self-efficacy is our belief in our ability to succeed.

Low self-efficacy can lead to LEARNED HELPLESSNESS and is considered one possible model of clinical depression.

SELF-ESTEEM is the measure of how we feel about ourselves, SELF-EFFICACY is our belief in our ability to succeed.

Question 14

Self-Discrepancy Theory

Answer 14

Maintains that each of us has 3 selves.

1. Actual Self - the way we see ourselves as we currently are.
2. Ideal Self - is the person we would like to be.
3. Ought Self - is our representation of the way others think we should be.

the closer these 3 selves are to one another, the higher our self-esteem or self-worth will be

Question 15

Gender Identity

Answer 15

Describes a person’s appraisal of him- or herself on scales of masculinity and femininity.

Question 16

Locus of Control

Answer 16

Locus of Control - refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives.

> Internal Locus of Control - individuals view themselves of controlling their own fate (e.g., I did bad on the test because I didn’t study hard enough).

> External Locus of Control - individuals feel that the events in their lives are caused by luck or outside influences (e.g., I did bad on the test because the professor wrote an unfair exam).

Question 17

Longitudinal Cohort Study

Answer 17

Follows a group of individuals and assesses them at multiple intervals over a period of time.

Question 18

Randomized Controlled Trial

Answer 18

Randomly assign participants to one of two groups: an experimental group and a control group.

Question 19

Cross-Sectional Study

Answer 19

Examine a group of individuals at one point in time.

Question 20

Case Control Study

Answer 20

Compare information about individuals with a disease or condition against people without the disease or condition.

Question 21

Social Constructionism

Answer 21

Asserts that people develop understandings and knowledge of the world through interactions with other people, and that the mediating force in this interaction is primarily language.

Example of social constructionism critique of gender:
“the tendency for women in the workplace to use consensus-building as the best problem-solving approach is a consequence of females being told that it’s important to “be a good girl” while growing up”.

Question 22

Gestalt Principle of Perception

Answer 22

Law of Closure - taking an incomplete figure comprised of disconnected pieces and perceive it as a complete whole.

Law of Symmetry - says that we tend to perceive stimuli as grouped symmetrically around a center point.

Law of Similarity - says that we perceive similar objects as being grouped together.

Law of Proximity - asserts that we tend to perceive objects close to each other in groups, rather than as a large collection individual pieces.

Question 23

Ethnocentrism

Answer 23

Is a world view in which one’s own culture and traditions are seen as inherently superior to those of other people. It is propagated from one generation to the next through a variety o cultural channels, the first and most important of which is the family.

Question 24

Attrition Bias

Answer 24

Occurs when participants drop out of a long-term experiment or study.

Question 25

Social Desirability Bias

Answer 25

a type of bias related to how people respond to research questions. Could respond to a question in the study that they felt was most socially acceptable.

Question 26

Selection Bias

Answer 26

Refers to a type of bias related to how people are chosen to participate.

Question 27

Reconstructive Bias

Answer 27

A type of bias related to memory. Research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate a we think, especially when we are remembering times of high stress.

Question 28

At one university, faculty members who behave unethically are required to have a meeting with the dean. After their meeting, their unprofessional behavior decreases. What process does this describe?

A. Positive Reinforcement
B. Negative Reinforcement
C. Positive Punishment
D. Negative Punishment

Answer 28

Positive Punishment

Question 29

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 29

Refers to adding a stimulus to increase a behavior.

Question 30

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 30

Refers to removing a stimulus to increase a behavior.

Question 31

Negative Punishment

Answer 31

Refers to removing a stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Question 32

Positive Punishment

Answer 32

Refers to adding a stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Question 33

Deindividuation

Answer 33

Happens when a person in a group loses awareness of their individuality and acting in a way that they wouldn’t normally act if they were alone.

Question 34

Social Loafing

Answer 34

Happens when one person in a group doesn’t take on their share of the responsibility.

Question 35

Group Polarization

Answer 35

Describes the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the individual ideas and inclinations of the members within the group.

Question 36

Social Action

Answer 36

Actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and performing because others are around.

Question 37

Social Facilitation

Answer 37

Supports the idea that people naturally exhibit a performance response when they know they are being watched.

Yerkes-Dodson Law of Social Facilitation –> being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (or simple tasks), and hinders the performance of less familiar tasks (or complex tasks).

Question 38

Bystander Effect

Answer 38

Occurs in social groups wherein individuals do not intervene to help victims when others are present.

Question 39

Peer Pressure

Answer 39

Refers to the social influence placed on an individual by a group of people or another individual.

The mechanism behind peer pressure has been explained by the IDENTITY SHIFT EFFECT: when an individual’s state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, the individual will often conform to the norms of the group. Upon doing so however, the individual will begin to experience internal conflict because the behavior is outside the normal character of the individual. To eliminate the sense of internal conflict, the individual experiences an identity shift wherein the individual adopts the standards of the group as her own.

Question 40

Cognitive Dissonance

Answer 40

Is the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions.

> this generally leads to an internal state of discomfort, which may manifest as anxiety, fear, anger, or confusion. individuals will try to reduce this discomfort by changing, adding to, or minimizing one of these dissonant thoughts.

** Solomon Asch’s Conformity Experiment - showed that individuals will often conform to an opinion held by the group. Asch concluded, individuals will sometimes provide answers they know to be untrue if it avoids going against the group: the urge toward conformity could outweigh the desire to provide the correct answer.

Question 41

Group Think

Answer 41

Refers to a social phenomenon in which desire for harmony or conformity results in a group of people coming to an incorrect or poor decision.

The group also begins to isolate and ignore external viewpoints, seeing their won ideas as correct without question.

Irving Janis examined 8 factors that are indicative of group think:
> Illusion of Invulnerability - the creation of optimism and encouragement of risk-taking
> Collective Rationalization - ignoring warnings against the idea of the group
> Illusion of Morality - the belief that the group’s decisions are morally correct
> Excessive Stereotyping - the construction of stereotypes against outside opinions
> Pressure for Conformity - the pressure put on anyone in the group who expresses opinions against the group, viewing the opposition as disloyal
> Self-Censorship - the withholding of opposing views
> Illusion of Unanimity - the false sense of agreement within the group
> Mindguards - the appointment of members to the role of protecting against opposing views

Question 42

Assimilation

Answer 42

The process by which an individual’s or group’s behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group.

Assimilation integrates new aspects of a society and culture with old ones, transforming the culture itself.

Assimilation can be slowed by the creation of ETHNIC ENCLAVES, which are locations (usually neighborhoods) with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity.

Question 43

Counterculture

Answer 43

The subculture group gravitates toward this identity that is at odds with the majority culture and deliberately opposes the prevailing social mores.

Question 44

Socialization

Answer 44

Term used when discussing the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs.

Primary Socialization - occurs during childhood when we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society, primarily through observation of our parents and other adults in close proximity.

Secondary Socialization - is the process of learning appropriate behavior within smaller sections of the larger society.

Anticipatory Socialization - is the process by which a person prepares for future changes in occupations, living situations, or relationships.

Resocialization - is another process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones to make a life change, and can have positive or negative connotations.

Question 45

Cultural Transmission (cultural learning) and Cultural Diffusion

Answer 45

The manner in which a society socializes its members is termed cultural transmission or cultural learning, and the spread of norms, customs, and beliefs (especially new ones) throughout the culture is called cultural diffusion.

Question 46

Folkways

Answer 46

Are norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions, such as shaking hands after a sports match.

Question 47

Social Stigma

Answer 47

Extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society.

Stigma can also spread to affect others who are associated with a particular individual.

Question 48

Labeling Theory

Answer 48

Posits that the labels given to people affect not only how others respond to that person, but also the person’s self-image. This can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity.

Strongly linked with deviance, stigmatization, and reputation.

Question 49

Differential Association Theory

Answer 49

According to this theory deviance can be learned through interactions with others.

In this theory, intimate exposure to others who engage in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for one to engage in deviant behavior him- or herself.

Question 50

Strain Theory

Answer 50

Attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect between social goals and social structure.

Question 51

Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience

Answer 51

While deviance is defined as going against societal norms, conformity, compliance, and obedience are manners of adhering to social expectations or others’ requests.

Conformity –> is matching one’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to societal norms. Also known as majority influence.

• normative conformity
• internalization
• identification

Compliance –> is a change in behavior based on a direct request. Person or group making the individual to make the change typically has no actual power or authority to command the individual.

• foot-in-the-door technique
• door-in-the-face technique
• lowball technique
• that’s-not-all technique

Obedience –> changing one’s behavior in response to a direct order from an authority figure.

Question 52

Normative Conformity

Answer 52

The desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection.

Question 53

Internalization

Answer 53

Type of Conformity

Involves changing one’s behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the ideas of the group.

Question 54

Identification

Answer 54

Type of Conformity

Refers to the outward acceptance of others’ ideas without personally taking on these ideas.

Question 55

Affective Component of Attitude

Answer 55

Refers to the way a person feels toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude.

e.g., Snakes scare me and I love my family are both affective expressions of attitude.

Question 56

Behavioral Component of Attitude

Answer 56

Is the way a person acts with respect to something.

e.g., Avoiding snakes and spending time with one’s family would reflect the behavioral component of the attitude.

Question 57

Cognitive Component of Attitude

Answer 57

Is the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components.

e.g., Knowing that snakes can be dangerous (and sometimes poisonous) provides a reason to be afraid of snakes and to avoid them.

Question 58

The 3 components of attitude.

Answer 58

• Affective
• Behavioral
• Cognitive

Question 59

Functional Attitudes Theory

Answer 59

States that attitudes serve 4 functions:

> Knowledge Function - is important in that it provides consistency and stability: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior.

> Ego-Expressive - allowing us to communicate and solidify our self-identity.

> Adaptive - is the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed.

> Ego-Defensive - if they protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong.

Question 60

Learning Theory

Answer 60

Theory of Attitude

Posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning.

Question 61

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Answer 61

Theory of Attitude

Separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information.

> Those who elaborate extensively; that is, those who think deeply about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this through. This deep thinking is referred to as CENTRAL ROUTE PROCESSING

> Those who do not elaborate, focusing on superficial details: the appearance of the person delivering the argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility. This is known as PERIPHERAL ROUTE PROCESSING

Question 62

Social Cognitive Theory

Answer 62

Theory of Attitude

Postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others.

According to this idea, behavior is not learned by trial-and-error, but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others, and in tandem with the influence of personal factors (such as thoughts about the behavior) and the environment in which we observe the behavior.

Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Causation:

> Behavioral Factors
Environmental Factors
Personal Factors

Question 63

The Stroop Effect

Answer 63

Describes the phenomenon in which it is harder for an individual to reconcile different pieces of information relating to colors than information that is consonant.

Question 64

External Validity

Answer 64

Refers to the generalizability of the research to settings beyond the study.

Question 65

Criterion Validity

Answer 65

Refers to whether a variable is able to predict a certain outcome.

Question 66

Symbolic Interactionism

Answer 66

Is the view that an individual’s experiences influence his perceptions.

e.g., an individual’s experience with race and class would influence how he perceives an image of individual in terms of what social class they would belong to

Question 67

Urbanization

Answer 67

Is the pattern of movement from rural areas to cities.

Question 68

Vertical Mobility

Answer 68

Is the movement from one social level to a higher one or a lower one by either changing jobs or marrying.

Question 69

Globalization

Answer 69

Is the increasing amount of interaction and integration on the international scale through exchange of products, services, ideas, and information.

Question 70

Population Growth

Answer 70

Is the increase in the number of individuals within a population.

Question 71

Stereotypes

Answer 71

Stereotypes are Cognitive!

In the context of sociology, Stereotypes occur when attitudes and impressions are based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals.

The content of stereotypes are the attributes that people believe define and characterize a group.

Paternalistic Stereotypes: are those in which the group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored.

Contemptuous Stereotypes: are those in which the group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger.

Envious Stereotypes: are those in which the group is viewed with jealousy, bitterness, or distrust.

Admiration Stereotypes: are those in which the group is viewed with pride and other positive feelings.

Question 72

Stereotype Content Model

Answer 72

Attempts to classify stereotypes with respect to a hypothetical in-group using two dimensions:
> warmth
> competence

Warm Groups –> are those that are not in direct competition with the in-group for resources.

Competent Groups –> are those that have high status within society.

Question 73

Stereotype Threat

Answer 73

Refers to the concept of people being concerned or anxious about confirming a negative stereotype about one’s social group.

Question 74

Prejudice

Answer 74

Prejudices are Affective

Defined as an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing, prior to an actual experience with that entity.

Prejudicial attitudes can run the gamut from hat to love, contempt to admiration, and indifference to loyalty.

Question 75

Propaganda

Answer 75

Is a common way by which large organizations and political groups attempt to create prejudices in others.

Question 76

Social Factors that Influence Prejudice

Answer 76

> Power - refers to the ability of people or groups to achieve their goals despite any obstacles, and their ability to control resources.

> Prestige - is the level of respect shown to a person by others.

> Class - refers to socioeconomic status.

Question 77

Ethnocentrism: In-Group versus Out-Group

Answer 77

In-Group: is a social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging or identifies as a member.

Out-Group: refers to a social group with which an individual does not identify.

Question 78

Cultural Relativism

Answer 78

Has been employed by sociologists to compare and understand other cultures in order to avoid ethnocentrism.

Is the perception of another culture as different from one’s own, but with the recognition thatthe cultural values, mores, and rules of a culture fit into that culture itself.

Question 79

Discrimination

Answer 79

Discrimination is Behavioral

Occurs when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others.

Individual Discrimination –> refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group.

Institutional Discrimination –> refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution.

Question 80

Cognitive Neoassociation Model

Answer 80

States that we are more likely to respond to others aggressively whenever we are feeling negative emotions, such as being tired, sick, frustrated, or in pain.

Question 81

Attachment

Answer 81

Is an emotional bond between a caregiver and a child.

Question 82

Secure Attachment

Answer 82

Is seen when a child has a consistent caregiver and is able to go out and explore, known that he or she has a secure base to return to.

Child will be upset at the departure of the caregiver and will be comforted by the return of the caregiver.

Question 83

Avoidant Attachment

Answer 83

Results when the caregiver has little or no response to a distressed child.

Given the choice, these children will show no preference between a stranger and the caregiver.

Question 84

Ambivalent Attachment

Answer 84

Occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child’s distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectfully.

The child is unable to form a secure base as he or she cannot consistently rely on the caregiver’s response.

The child will be very distressed on separation from the caregiver but has a mixed response when the caregiver returns, often displaying ambivalence.

This is sometimes referred to as anxious-ambivalent attachment because the child is always anxious about the reliability of the caregiver.

Question 85

Disorganized Attachment

Answer 85

Show no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver’s absence or presence, but instead can show a mix of different behaviors.

These can include avoidance or resistance; seeming dazed, frozen, or confused; or repetitive behaviors like rocking.

Often associated with erratic behavior and social withdrawal by the caregiver.

It may also be a red flag for abuse.

Question 86

Lateral Hypothalamus

Answer 86

promotes hunger

Question 87

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

Answer 87

responds to cues that we are full and promotes satiety.

Question 88

Altruism

Answer 88

Is a form of helping behavior in which the person’s intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to him- or herself.

Question 89

Empathy

Answer 89

Is the ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another, and it is through by some social psychologists to be a strong influence on helping behavior.

Question 90

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Answer 90

Is one explanation for the relationship between empathy and helping behavior.

According to this theory - one individual helps another person when he or she feels empathy for the other person, regardless of the cost.

Question 91

Game Theory

Answer 91

Attempts to explain decision-making behavior.

Question 92

Inclusive Fitness

Answer 92

Is a measure of an organism’s success in the population.

This is based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others.

Inclusive fitness therefore promotes the idea that altruistic behavior can improve the fitness and success of a species as a whole.

Question 93

Halo Effect

Answer 93

Is a cognitive bias in which judgments about a specific aspect of an individual can be affected by one’s overall impression of the individual.

The halo effect explains why people are often inaccurate when evaluating people that they either believe to be generally good, or those that they believe to be generally bad.

Question 94

Just-World Hypothesis

Answer 94

Cognitive bias during impression formation.

In a so-called just world, good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people; noble actions are rewarded, and evil actions are punished.

Question 95

Self-Serving Bias

Answer 95

Self-identity and perception can be skewed through self-serving bias, also known as self-serving attributional bias.

This bias refers to the fact that individuals will view their own success based on internal factors, while viewing failures based on external factors.

The notion that all good things that happen are based on our good traits and behaviors and that all bad things are based on situational factors beyond our control is used to protect our self-esteem.

Locus of Control - influence self-serving bias.

Question 96

Self-Enhancement

Answer 96

Focuses on the need to maintain self-worth and can be done through internal attribution of successes and external attribution of failures.

Question 97

Attribution Theory

Answer 97

Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people’s behavior.

Dispositional (internal) Attributions - are those that relate to the person whose behavior is being considered, including his or her beliefs, attitudes, and personality characteristics.

Situational (external) Attributions - are those that relate to features of the surroundings, such as threats, money, social norms, and peer pressure.

Question 98

Behavior Cues

Answer 98

In order to understand the behavior of others, a variety of cues are used.

Consistency Cues –> refer to the consistent behavior of a person over time.

Consensus Cues –> relate to the extent to which a person’s behavior differs from others.

Distinctiveness Cues –> refer to the extent to which a person engages in similar behavior across a series of scenarios.

Question 99

Fundamental Attribution Theory

Answer 99

Posits that we are generally biased toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions, especially in negative contexts.

E.g., suppose that you were working on a team project and another team member was unable to complete his assignment. Our immediate response may be to assume that this team member is lazy, unreliable, or even stupid - all ow which are dispositional attributions. We may ignore the possibility that the team member got ill, has too many concurrent assignments, or suffered a personal tragedy - all of which are situational attributions.

Question 100

Attribute Substitution

Answer 100

Occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex, but instead they substitute a simpler solution or apply a heuristic.