FINALS HUHU (ENDOCRINE & NERVOUS SYSTEM)) Flashcards
Which gland produces melatonin?
Pineal Gland
A network of glands that produce and release hormones to regulate various functions in the body.
Endocrine system
Regulates sleep-wake cycles and seasonal biological rhythms
Melatonin
Which gland produces releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones?
Hypothalamus
a type of peptide hormone that regulates the synthesis or release of other hormones
Releasing Hormones
A hormone that inhibits (restrains) the release of other hormones
Inhibiting Hormones
Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and metabolism
Growth Hormone
Which segment of the pituitary glands produce the following: growth hormone, TSH, ACTH, PRL, FSH, LH
Anterior Pituitary
What hormones does the posterior pituitary produce?
Antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
Regulates water balance by reducing urine production
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, Vasopressin)
Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding
Oxytocin
What serves as the brain’s control center for the pituitary, regulating its hormone release and ensuring the proper function of the body’s hormonal system
Hypothalamus
Known as the “master endocrine gland” due to its control over many other endocrine glands
Anterior Pituitary
Does not produce hormones but stores hormones made by hypothalamic neurons
Posterior Pituitary
Removal or destruction of the anterior pituitary leads to _____ of the adrenal glands, thyroid glands, and gonads.
atrophy
Which gland produces Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3), and Calcitonin?
Thyroid Gland
Regulate metabolism, energy production, and oxygen consumption
Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3)
Lowers blood calcium levels by promoting calcium storage in bones
Calcitonin
Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption and calcium absorption in the gut.
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Which gland produces Parathyroid Hormone?
Parathyroid Glands
Which segment of the adrenal glands produce the following: Cortisol, aldosterone, androgen
Adrenal Cortex
Which segment of the adrenal glands produce adrenaline and noradrenaline?
Adrenal Medulla
Regulates stress responses, metabolism, and immune function
Cortisol
Maintains blood pressure by regulating sodium and potassium levels
Aldosterone
Contribute to sexual developmentt and reproduction
Androgen
Trigger “fight of flight” responses
Adrenaline and noradrenaline
What hormones does the pancreas release?
Insulin, Glucagon, Somatostatin
Lowers blood glucose levels by promoting its storage or use
Insulin
Raises blood glucose levels by promoting glycogen breakdown
Glucagon
Regulates the balance between insulin and glucagon
Somatostatin
Reproductive Organs under gonads
Ovaries and Testes
Regulates menstrual cycle, development of secondary sexual characteristics, and reproduction
Estrogen
Prepares the uterus for pregnancy and supports early pregnancy
Progesterone
Regulates sperm production and secondary male sexual characteristics
Testosterone
They are generally water-soluble and cannot easily cross the plasma membrane of target cells. Instead, they bind to specific receptors located on the cell’s surface. This includes proteins, peptides, and amines.
Amino-acid-based hormones
These are lipid-soluble hormones derived from cholesterol. They can easily pass through the plasma membrane and bind to receptors either in the cytoplasm of the nucleus of target cells.
Steroid Hormones
lipid compounds that regulate inflammation, pain, and blood flow. They are produced in tissues and play key roles in various bodily functions
Prostaglandin
Only cells with the appropriate receptors can respond to a particular hormone. This ensures taht hormones have specific effects on certain tissues.
Target Specificity
When a hormone binds to its receptor, it causes a conformational change in the receptor, activating it and initiating a cellular response.
Activation of Receptors
When hormones like steroids and thyroid hormones enter cells, bind to receptors, and activate specific genes to produce proteins.
Direct gene activation
This is used by water-soluble hormones that bind to cell surface receptors. This triggers the production of molecules like cAMP or calcium (second messengers) inside the cell, which amplify the signal and activate proteins to create a rapid response.
Second Messenger System
Feedback loops when level of hormone rises, it inhibits further secretion of the hormone, helping to maintain balance within a narrow range.
Feedback mechanisms
Hormones coordinate various physiological processes
Integration of Body Functions
The endocrine system can respond to carious internal and external stimuli to adjust hormone levels accordingly.
Response to stimuli
Three types of stimuli for control of hormone release
Hormonal Stimulus, Humoral Stimulus, Neural Stimulus
Most common stimulus
One hormone triggers the release of another hormone
Hormonal Stimulus
Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrient to stimulate hormone release
Humoral Stimulus
Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
Allows for quick responses to immediate demands
Neural Stimulus
The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon to balance blood levels.
Blood Sugar Regulation
a change in the environment, such as glucose levels, is detected by a receptor
Stimulus
The receptor sends information to the brain, which relays signals to an effector organ
Control Center
makes adjustments to move the value back toward the set point
Effector organ
“fight or flight” response, is an immediate reaction to perceived threats or challenges.
Short-term stress response
importance of short-term stress response
- immediate energy boost
- enhanced immune functions
- cognitive function
occurs when stressors persist over time. This response is characterized by sustained release of cortisol and other hormones., which can have significant effects on bodily functions.
Long-term stress response
Effects of Long-term stress response
- hormonal regulation
- impact on non-essential functions
- health risks
Coordinates all body functions, enabling a person to adapt to changes to changes in internal and external environment
Nervous System
How many cranial nerves do we have?
12 cranial nerves
connects through the brain (foramen magnum); encircled by bones of the vertebrae column (100M neurons)
Spinal cord
nerves that emerge from the spinal cord
Spinal nerves
small masses of nervous tissue, consisting primarily of neuron cell bodies that are located outside the brain and spinal cord. Associated with cranial and spinal nerves
Ganglia
walls of organs of the gastrointestinal tract; extensive networks of neurons
Enteric plexuses
specialized cells that monitor changes in the internal or external environment
Sensory receptors
detect internal stimuli (blood acidity) and external stimuli (feeling of warmth)
Sensory receptors
processing of sensory information by analyzing and storing some of it to determine the proper course of action
integrative function
elicit an appropriate motor response by activating effectors (glands, muscles) through cranial and spinal nerves
motor function
Subdivisions of the nervous system
- Central Nervous System
- Peripheral Nervous System
Supporting cells
Neuroglia
6 types of Neuroglia
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal
Schwann
Satellite
Star-shaped cells have many processes and are the largest and most numerous of the neuroglia
Astrocytes
Forms and maintain the myelin sheath (lipid and protein covering around some axons)
Oligodendrocytes
phagocytes
Microglia
Possibly monitor, and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
Ependymal
Just like oligo w/c myelinates the axons; but can only myelinate a single axon
Schwann
Regulate the exchanges of materials between neuronal cell bodies and intestinal fluid
Satellite
3 primary brain vesicles of the central nervous system
Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain
Transports CSF to the cranial cavity
Ventricles
Most superior part of the brain, holds 83% of brain mass
Cerebral Hemisphere/Cerebrum
4 divisions of the Cerebrum
Frontal, Temporal, Parietal, Occipital
Personality
Judgement
Expression
Language expression
Motor movement
Frontal;
Hearing
Language
Comprehension
Storage and recall of memories
Limbic system is located
Temporal
Reception and interpretation of sensation
Parietal
Interpret visual stimuli
Occipital
Segments of the Diencephalon
- Hypothalamus
- Thalamus
- Epithalamus
Controls
Hypothalamus
2nd largest brain region.
Maintain muscle tone, coordinate muscle movement, posture and control balance/ equilibrium
Cerebellum
What parts form the brainstem?
Midbrain, Pons, Medulla Oblongata
Located between the diencephalon and pons; moves the eye and functions for visual processing
MIdbrain
Connects the cerebellum with the cerebrum
Pons
The most inferior portion of the brainstem
Serves as the center for autonomic reflexes to maintain homeostasis, regulating respiratory and cardiac functions
Medulla oblongata
Protects the CNS; found on the external surface. Protect blood vessels
Meninges
3 types of meninges
Dura mater, Arachnoid mater, Pia mater
strongest meninx
Two-layered sheet of fibrous connective tissue
Dura mater
Forms a loose brain covering
Arachnoid mater
Composed of delicate connective tissue and richly invested with tiny blood vessels
Pia mater
Forms a liquid cushion that gives buoyancy to CNS structures; Helps nourish the brain
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Protective mechanism that helps maintain a stable environment for the brain
Blood Brain Barrier
Alteration in brain function
Concussion
More serious concussion
Can bruise the brain and cause permanent neurological damage
Contusion
Bleeding from ruptured vessels
Subdural Hemorrhage
When blood circulation to a brain area is blocked and brain tissue dies
Cerebrovascular Accident
Memory loss, short attention span, disorientation, language loss
Alzheimer’s disease
Exhibit by “pill-rolling” movements of the fingers and wrist
Degeneration of the dopamine-releasing neurons
Parkinson’s Disease
Hereditary disorder
Huntingtin protein accumulates in brain cells and the tissue dies
Impairs the ability to reason, walk, and speak
Huntington’s Disease
How many pairs of spinal nerves do we have?
31 pairs
Sensory receptors classification by stimulus type
Mechanoreceptors
Thermoreceptors
Photoreceptors
Chemoreceptors
Nociceptors
Sensory receptors classification by location
Exteroceptors, Interoceptors, Proprioceptors
Are sensitive to stimuli arising outside the body
Exteroceptors
Respond to stimuli within the body
Interoceptors
Also respond to internal stimuli; occur in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, and ligaments and in connective tissue coverings of bones and muscles
Proprioceptors
Sensory receptors classification by receptor structure
- Tactile (Meissner) Corpuscles
- Lamellar (Pacinian) Corpuscles
- Bulbous Corpuscles
- Muscle Spindles
- Tendon Organs
2 categories of ganglia
Sensory and Autonomic ganglia
Contains complete reflex circuits that detect the physiological condition of the gastrointestinal tract
Enteric Plexus
controls ANS body temp, appetite, water balance, sleep-wake cycle, emotions
hypothalamus
the relay station of all sensory stimuli towards the brain
thalamus
connect the limbic system to other parts of the brain
epithalamus
