Final Wrap up Flashcards
1
Q
what are the 8 immune cells
A
NK cells
Basophil
Dendritic cell
Neutrophil
Monoytes
Eosinophil
T cell
B cell
2
Q
what is the difference between innate and adaptive immunity
A
Innate Immunity: Immediate, non-specific, no memory.
Adaptive Immunity: Delayed, specific, has memory.
3
Q
how do immune cells play a role in vaccination/memory responses
A
Immune cells (like B and T cells) recognize the vaccine antigen, respond, and form memory cells for faster, stronger future responses.
4
Q
what is the difference between gram negative and gram positive bacteria cell walls
A
Gram-Positive: Thick peptidoglycan layer, no outer membrane, stains purple.
Gram-Negative: Thin peptidoglycan, outer membrane present, stains pink.
5
Q
what is the difference between enveloped and non enveloped viruses
A
Enveloped Viruses: Have a lipid membrane
Non-Enveloped Viruses: No lipid membrane
6
Q
what is the difference between DNA and RNA viruses
A
DNA Viruses: Stable, replicate in nucleus, use host DNA machinery.
RNA Viruses: Less stable, replicate in cytoplasm, use their own enzymes.
7
Q
what is sensitivity
A
The ability of a test to correctly identify those with the disease (true positives).
8
Q
what is 100% sensitivity
A
The test detects all true positives—no false negatives.
9
Q
what is the sensitivity calculation
A
Sensitivity = (True Positives) ÷ (True Positives + False Negatives) × 100%
10
Q
what is specificity
A
The ability of a test to correctly exclude those without the disease (true negatives).
11
Q
what is 100% specificity
A
The test correctly identifies all true negatives—no false positives.
12
Q
what is the specificity calculation
A
(True Negatives) ÷ (True Negatives + False Positives) × 100%
13
Q
what is positive predictive value
A
The probability that subjects with a positive test result actually have the disease.
14
Q
what is the calculation for positive predictive value
A
(True Positives) ÷ (True Positives + False Positives) × 100%
15
Q
What is commensalism?
A
Parasite benefits, host is unaffected.
16
Q
What is mutualism?
A
Both host and parasite benefit.
17
Q
What is parasitic symbiosis ?
A
Parasite benefits, host is harmed
18
Q
What is Infection?
A
The invasion and multiplication of pathogens in the body.
19
Q
What is Pathogenicity?
A
The ability of an organism to cause disease.
20
Q
What is Virulence?
A
The degree of harm a pathogen can cause to a host.
21
Q
What is Disease?
A
The manifestation of symptoms due to the infection and the host’s response.
22
Q
What is Toxigenicity?
A
The ability of a pathogen to produce toxins that damage host tissues.
23
Q
What is Infectivity?
A
The ability of a pathogen to establish infection in a host.
24
Q
What is a Carrier?
A
An individual who harbors a pathogen without showing symptoms, potentially spreading it.
25
What is the Incubation Period?
Time between exposure to the pathogen and the onset of symptoms.
26
What occurs during the Prodromal Period?
Early, non-specific symptoms like fatigue or mild fever appear.
27
What characterizes the specific Illness Period?
Full-blown symptoms of the disease, the most severe stage.
28
What happens in the Convalescence Period?
Recovery phase, where the body heals and returns to normal function.
29
What is the transmission of pathogens?
Pathogens enter the host through various portals (e.g., respiratory, gastrointestinal).
30
What is adherence in the context of pathogens?
Pathogens attach to host cells using adhesins or other surface structures.
31
What does invasion refer to for pathogens?
Pathogens penetrate host tissues, sometimes using enzymes or toxins.
32
How do pathogens evade the immune system?
Pathogens avoid or overcome the host’s immune defenses (e.g., by altering surface proteins).
33
What is toxin production by pathogens?
Pathogens produce toxins that damage host tissues and disrupt normal function.
34
What is the immune function of the mother?
Fully developed, with active innate and adaptive immunity.
35
What is the immune function of the fetus/newborn?
Immature at birth, develops over time.
36
What is an Opportunistic Pathogen?
Causes disease only when the host's immune system is weakened or when it enters an unusual location.
37
What is a Primary Pathogen?
Causes disease in a healthy host by overcoming normal immune defenses.
38
What is a Chronic infection?
Infection persists for a long time, often for life, with continuous or intermittent symptoms.
39
What is a Latent infection?
Infection is dormant in the body, with no symptoms, but can reactivate later.
40
What is a Subclinical infection?
Infection occurs without noticeable symptoms, but the person can still spread the pathogen.
41
What is Clear Recovery?
The immune system successfully eliminates the infection, and the person fully recovers without long-term effects.
42
What is Direct Transmission?
Spread of pathogens through direct contact between an infected and a healthy person.
## Footnote
Example: Touch, sexual contact, kissing (e.g., HIV, herpes).
43
What is Indirect Transmission?
Pathogen spread through an intermediate object or surface
## Footnote
Example: Contaminated surfaces, utensils (e.g., norovirus).
44
What is Droplet Transmission?
Spread of pathogens through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes.
## Footnote
Example: Flu, COVID-19.
45
What is Airborne Transmission?
Pathogen spread via tiny droplets or particles that remain suspended in the air for long periods.
## Footnote
Example: Tuberculosis, measles.
46
What is Vector-Borne Transmission?
Spread through vectors, such as insects, that carry pathogens from one host to another.
## Footnote
Example: Malaria (mosquito), Lyme disease (ticks).
47
What is Vertical Transmission?
Pathogen transmitted from mother to child, either during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.
## Footnote
Example: HIV, rubella.
48
What is transplacental transmission?
Pathogen crosses the placenta from mother to fetus during pregnancy.
## Footnote
Examples: HIV, syphilis, rubella.
49
What is perinatal transmission?
Pathogen is transmitted during childbirth, often through contact with infected birth canal.
## Footnote
Example: Herpes simplex virus (HSV), group B Streptococcus.
50
What is postnatal (breastfeeding) transmission?
Pathogen is transmitted from mother to newborn through breast milk.
## Footnote
Examples: HIV, HTLV-1 (human T-cell leukemia virus).
51
What is receptor adherence
When pathogens attach to specific receptors on the host cell surface, enabling the infection to begin. This is mediated by ligands (on the pathogen) binding to receptors (on the host).
52
what is surface invasion
pathogens penetrate the outer layers of host tissues, typically by breaking down barriers like the skin or mucosal membranes.
53
what enzymes aid in surface invasion
hyaronidase
lipase
collagenase
coagulase
54
what is systemic invasion
spread of a pathogen throughout the body, beyond the initial site of infection, typically through the bloodstream or lymphatic system
55
what is endotoxin release
Released from the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria when they die or lyse; cause immune responses like fever and inflammation.
56
what is exotoxin release
Secreted proteins from both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria; directly damage host cells and are usually more potent than endotoxins.
57
What is Antigenic Variation?
Changing surface proteins to avoid detection.
58
What is Inhibition of Phagocytosis?
Using capsules or proteins to prevent immune cells from engulfing them.
59
What is Immune Suppression?
Producing factors that inhibit immune cell activity.
60
What is Intracellular Survival?
Hiding within host cells to avoid immune response.
61
What is Hepatitis B (HepB)?
Can lead to liver cancer (chronic or carrier), prophylactic strategies available (Vaccine and immune globulins), transmitted via blood, sexual contact, in utero/perinatal, chronic or carrier state, dsDNA, enveloped.
62
What is Hepatitis C (HepC)?
Can lead to liver cancer (chronic or carrier), no vaccine but treated with IFN and ribavirin, transmitted via blood, sexual contact, in utero/perinatal, chronic or carrier state, ssRNA, enveloped.
63
What is Hepatitis A (HepA)?
Does not lead to liver cancer, prophylactic strategies available (Vaccine and immune globulins), transmitted via fecal-oral route, no chronic state, ssRNA, non-enveloped.
64
What is Hepatitis E (HepE)?
Does not lead to liver cancer, no vaccine, transmitted via fecal-oral route, no chronic state, ssRNA, non-enveloped.
65
What are endotoxins?
Found in Gram-negative bacteria, not released (in outer membrane), not used for immunization, not strain-specific.
## Footnote
Example: LPS causes fever and septic shock.
66
What are exotoxins?
Found in Gram-negative or positive bacteria, released from the cell, used for immunization (toxoid), strain-specific.
## Footnote
Examples: Cholera toxin (diarrhea), Diphtheria toxin (cell death), Tetanus toxin (muscle spasms).
67
what antibodies cross placenta
IgG
68
what antibodies are in breast milk
IgA
69
Targets of influenza virus
Influenza A: Humans, swine, birds, other animals.
Influenza B: Primarily humans.
Influenza C: Mild infections in humans
70
Structure of Influenza
Hemagglutinin (HA): Facilitates viral entry into host cells.
Neuraminidase (NA): Helps viral release from host cells.
71
Antigenic variation in influenza
Antigenic Drift: Gradual changes due to point mutations.
Antigenic Shift: Sudden changes through genetic reassortment, leading to new strains.
72
how do pandemics evolve
Pandemics evolve through antigenic shift, where reassortment of viral genes from different species leads to a new strain with little immunity, causing widespread illness.
73
clinical findings and treatments of influenza
Clinical Findings: Fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, fatigue, possible GI symptoms.
Treatment: Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and Zanamivir (Relenza) reduce symptoms when taken within 48 hours of onset.
74
prevention of influenza
Annual flu vaccines (inactivated), targeting influenza A and B strains for the year.
75
influenza and pregnancy
Increased Risks: Higher risk of severe illness, pneumonia, preterm labour.
Recommendations: Pregnant women should get the flu vaccine (preferably in the second or third trimester). Oseltamivir is safe for treatment if necessary.
76
Describe HSV 1
DNA or RNA?: dsDNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Herpes Simplex Virus 1
Common Name: Oral herpes
Condition It Causes: Cold sores
Type of Infection: Latent
Transmission: Direct contact, saliva, or infected fluids. Can be transmitted during childbirth.
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Neonatal herpes (rash, fever, poor feeding, seizures).
Treatment/Prevention: Antiviral treatment (Acyclovir), C-section if active lesions at birth.
77
Describe HSV 2
DNA or RNA?: dsDNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Herpes Simplex Virus 2
Common Name: Genital herpes
Condition It Causes: Genital sores, possible neonatal herpes
Type of Infection: Latent
Transmission: Sexual contact, can be transmitted during childbirth.
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Neonatal herpes (skin, eyes, mouth lesions, encephalitis).
Treatment/Prevention: Antiviral treatment (Acyclovir), C-section if active lesions at birth.
78
describe VZV
DNA or RNA?: dsDNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Varicella Zoster Virus
Common Name: Chickenpox, Shingles
Condition It Causes: Chickenpox (primary infection), Shingles (reactivation)
Type of Infection: Latent
Transmission: Airborne droplets or direct contact with lesions.
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Congenital varicella syndrome (birth defects like limb hypoplasia, eye defects).
Treatment/Prevention: Vaccination (Varicella vaccine), antiviral treatment (Acyclovir) in severe cases.
79
describe EBV
DNA or RNA?: dsDNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Epstein-Barr Virus
Common Name: Mono (Mononucleosis)
Condition It Causes: Infectious mononucleosis
Type of Infection: Latent
Transmission: Saliva, close contact, or blood.
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Possible intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), low birth weight.
Treatment/Prevention: Symptomatic treatment, no specific antiviral for EBV.
80
Describe CMV
DNA or RNA?: dsDNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Cytomegalovirus
Common Name: CMV
Condition It Causes: Congenital CMV, which can lead to hearing loss, developmental delay.
Type of Infection: Latent
Transmission: Body fluids (saliva, urine, blood, etc.), vertical transmission (during pregnancy).
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Hearing loss, developmental delays, microcephaly.
Treatment/Prevention: No vaccine; antiviral therapy (Ganciclovir) may be used for severe cases.
81
describe parvovirus B19
DNA or RNA?: ssDNA, non-enveloped
Scientific Name: Parvovirus B19
Common Name: Fifth disease
Condition It Causes: Erythema infectiosum (slapped cheek syndrome)
Type of Infection: Acute
Transmission: Respiratory droplets, vertical transmission.
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Hydrops fetalis (fetal anemia, edema).
Treatment/Prevention: No specific antiviral, management of fetal anemia.
82
describe Rubella
DNA or RNA?: ssRNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Rubella Virus
Common Name: German measles
Condition It Causes: Rubella, can cause congenital rubella syndrome (CRS)
Type of Infection: Acute
Transmission: Airborne droplets, vertical transmission (pregnancy).
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Deafness, cataracts, heart defects, developmental delays.
Treatment/Prevention: Rubella vaccine (part of MMR), no antiviral treatment.
83
describe HTLV-1
DNA or RNA?: ssRNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Human T-cell Leukemia Virus Type 1
Common Name: HTLV-1
Condition It Causes: Adult T-cell leukemia, neurological disease
Type of Infection: Chronic
Transmission: Blood, sexual contact, vertical transmission (pregnancy).
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Neurological damage.
Treatment/Prevention: No vaccine, management of leukemia.
84
Describe HIV
DNA or RNA?: ssRNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Common Name: HIV
Condition It Causes: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Type of Infection: Chronic
Transmission: Blood, sexual contact, vertical transmission (pregnancy).
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: HIV transmission to fetus can cause AIDS in infants.
Treatment/Prevention: Antiretroviral therapy (ART), HIV prevention (PrEP), HIV testing and treatment during pregnancy.
85
Describe Zika Virus
DNA or RNA?: ssRNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Zika Virus
Common Name: Zika
Condition It Causes: Zika fever, congenital Zika syndrome
Type of Infection: Acute
Transmission: Aedes mosquito, sexual contact, vertical transmission.
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Microcephaly, developmental delays, neurological issues.
Treatment/Prevention: No vaccine, mosquito control, supportive care.
86
describe COVID-19
DNA or RNA?: ssRNA, enveloped
Scientific Name: Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2
Common Name: COVID-19
Condition It Causes: Respiratory illness, possible long COVID
Type of Infection: Acute
Transmission: Airborne, droplets, surfaces, vertical transmission (rare).
Symptoms in Fetus/Baby: Most infants have mild symptoms, some may have respiratory distress.
Treatment/Prevention: Vaccination, antiviral treatment, supportive care.
87
Describe Chlamydia
Classification: Gram-negative
Common Name: Chlamydia
Condition: Cervicitis, conjunctivitis, pneumonia in newborns
Transmission: Sexual, vertical (during delivery)
Virulence Factors: Intracellular lifecycle
Resistance Issues: Some resistance reported
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Neonatal eye infections, pneumonia
Treatment/Prevention: Azithromycin in pregnancy; screen & treat during pregnancy
88
Describe Gonorrhoea
Classification: Gram-negative diplococcus
Common Name: Gonorrhea
Condition: Gonorrhea, ophthalmia neonatorum
Transmission: Sexual, vertical (during delivery)
Virulence Factors: Pili, IgA protease
Resistance Issues: High resistance (ceftriaxone used)
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Eye infection, sepsis in newborns
Treatment/Prevention: Ceftriaxone; erythromycin eye drops at birth
89
describe Streptococcus agalactiae
Classification: Gram-positive cocci
Common Name: Group B Strep (GBS)
Condition: Neonatal sepsis, pneumonia, meningitis
Transmission: Vertical (during labor)
Virulence Factors: Capsule, hemolysins
Resistance Issues: Rare
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Life-threatening infections in neonates
Treatment/Prevention: Penicillin; intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis
90
describe streptococcus pyogenes
Classification: Gram-positive cocci
Common Name: Group A Strep (GAS)
Condition: Pharyngitis, skin infections, TSS
Transmission: Respiratory, skin contact
Virulence Factors: M protein, exotoxins
Resistance Issues: Increasing macrolide resistance
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Puerperal sepsis
Treatment/Prevention: Penicillin, hygiene
91
Staphylococcus aureus
Classification: Gram-positive cocci
Common Name: Staph
Condition: Skin infections, TSS, neonatal sepsis
Transmission: Skin contact, hospital-acquired
Virulence Factors: TSS toxin, exfoliative toxin
Resistance Issues: MRSA
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Neonatal skin/soft tissue infections
Treatment/Prevention: Vancomycin (MRSA); hygiene, decolonization
92
Treponema pallidum
Classification: Spirochete
Common Name: Syphilis
Condition: Syphilis, congenital syphilis
Transmission: Sexual, vertical (transplacental)
Virulence Factors: Motility, immune evasion
Resistance Issues: Macrolide resistance
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Stillbirth, deformities, rash
Treatment/Prevention: Penicillin G; prenatal screening
93
describe E.Coli
Classification: Gram-negative rod
Common Name: E. coli
Condition: UTI, neonatal meningitis, sepsis
Transmission: GI tract, birth canal
Virulence Factors: Pili, endotoxins, capsule
Resistance Issues: ESBL strains
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: UTI, sepsis, meningitis
Treatment/Prevention: Cephalosporins, hygiene
94
describe Clostridium species
Classification: Gram-positive rods, anaerobic, spore-forming
Common Name: Clostridium
Condition: Tetanus, gas gangrene, C. diff colitis
Transmission: Spores, fecal-oral (C. diff), wound contamination
Virulence Factors: Toxins (e.g., tetanospasmin)
Resistance Issues: Some resistance in C. diff
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Neonatal tetanus (if unvaccinated mother)
Treatment/Prevention: Metronidazole, DTaP vaccine
95
Describe mycoplasma
Classification: Bacteria without cell wall
Common Name: Mycoplasma/Ureaplasma
Condition: Urethritis, chorioamnionitis, preterm birth
Transmission: Sexual, vertical
Virulence Factors: Adhesins, biofilm formation
Resistance Issues: Resistant to beta-lactams
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Preterm labor, neonatal lung disease
Treatment/Prevention: Macrolides (Azithromycin)
96
describe Listeria
Classification: Gram-positive rod
Common Name: Listeria
Condition: Listeriosis
Transmission: Foodborne, vertical (transplacental)
Virulence Factors: Listeriolysin O, intracellular motility
Resistance Issues: Rare
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Miscarriage, stillbirth, meningitis
Treatment/Prevention: Ampicillin; avoid deli meats/soft cheese
97
Describe Trichomonas Vaginalis
Classification: Protozoan parasite
Common Name: Trichomoniasis
Condition: Vaginitis
Transmission: Sexual
Virulence Factors: Flagella, adhesins
Resistance Issues: Some metronidazole resistance
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Preterm delivery, low birth weight
Treatment/Prevention: Metronidazole; screen in pregnancy
98
Describe Toxoplasma gondii
Classification: Protozoan parasite
Common Name: Toxoplasmosis
Condition: Toxoplasmosis
Transmission: Undercooked meat, cat feces, vertical
Virulence Factors: Intracellular survival
Resistance Issues: Not typical
Pregnancy/Fetus/Baby Effects: Hydrocephalus, chorioretinitis, brain calcifications
Treatment/Prevention: Spiramycin (early), TMP-SMX (late); avoid raw meat, cat litter
99
Health effects of streptococcus Pyogenes
GABHS
impetigo
strep throat
actute rheumatic fever
acute glomerulonephritis
scarlet fever
100
health effects of staphylococcus aureus
scalded skin syndrome
post-surgical wound infection
toxic shock syndrome
101
why are females more susceptible to UTIs
shorter urethra and closer to anus increases risk of bacterial entry
102
Why are UTIs worse in pregnancy
Hormonal and anatomical changes (e.g., ureter dilation, bladder compression) increase risk of upper tract infection and complications like pyelonephritis.
103
asymptomatic bacteriuria
10⁵ CFU/mL of one bacterial species in 2 urine samples with no symptoms.
It has a higher risk of progressing to pyelonephritis in late pregnancy.
104
what are the stages/types of UTIs
Asymptomatic bacteriuria, Lower UTI (cystitis), Upper UTI (pyelonephritis)
105
symptoms of Lower UTIs
Dysuria, urgency, frequency, hematuria, suprapubic pain, bacteriuria.
106
symptoms of upper UTIs
Fever, chills, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, bacteriuria.
107
β-lactams
Inhibit cell wall synthesis
bactericidal
safe in pregnancy
eg. penicillin
108
Glycopeptides
Inhibit cell wall synthesis
eg. vancomycin
bactericidal
use with caution in pregnancy
109
Aminoglycosides
Inhibit 30S ribosome (protein synthesis)
eg. gentamicin
bactericidal
avoid in pregnancy
110
Tetracyclines
Inhibit 30S ribosome (protein synthesis)
eg. doxycycline
bacteriostatic
avoid in pregnancy
111
Macrolides
Inhibit 50S ribosome (protein synthesis)
eg. erythromycin
bacteriostatic
safe in pregnancy
112
Lincosamides
Inhibit 50S ribosome (protein synthesis)
eg. clindamycin
bacteriostatic
safe in pregnancy
113
Quinolones
Inhibit DNA gyrase (DNA replication)
eg. ciprofloxacin
bactericidal
avoid in pregnancy
114
Sulfonamides/Trimethoprim
Inhibit folic acid synthesis
eg. TMP-SMX
bacteriostatic
avoid in late pregnancy
115
Metronidazole
Damages DNA (anaerobes)
eg. nitrofuratoin
bactericidal
mostly safe in pregnancy
116
how does bacterial resistance happen
mutation or acquisition of resistance genes via plasmids, bacteriophages or uptake
117
antibiotics for GBS
penicillin
cephalosporins (if allergic to penicillin)
118
antibiotics for chlamydia
macrolides or lincosamids
avoid tertracyclines in pregnancy
119
antibiotics for Gonorrhea
cephalosporins or lincosamides
120
antibiotics for MRSA
glycopeptides
ie. vancomycin
121
antibiotics for streptococci
penicillin, cephalosporins, macrolides
