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Anatomy and physiology II > Final Lecture Test > Flashcards

Final Lecture Test Flashcards

1
Q

What is the renal capsule?

A

fibrous connective tissue that surrounds each kidney..

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2
Q

What is the perirenal fat?

A

Fat that engulfs the renal capsulse and acts as a cushion.

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3
Q

What is the renal fascia?

A

a thin layer of loose connective tissue that anchors the kidneys and surrounding adipose to the abdominal wall.

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4
Q

What is the hilum of the kidneys?

A

This is where the renal artery and nerves enter and renal vein and ureters exit kidneys.

Opens into the renal sinus (cavity filled with fat and loose connective tissue)

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5
Q

What is the cortex of the kidney?

A

outer area of kidneys, contains renal columns that are part of cortical tissue running to medulla.

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6
Q

What is the medulla?

A

This is the inner area of the kidneys that surrounds the renal sinus.

Also contains the renal pyramids whose base is the boundary between cortex and medulla and the apex (renal papilla) points towards the sinus.

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7
Q

What are the calyces?

A

Minor: papillae extend into minor calyx.

Major:converge to form pelvis.

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8
Q

What is the renal pelvis?

A

an enlarged chamber formed by the major calyces.

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9
Q

What are the ureters?

A

These are the tubes that exit the hilum and got o the urinary bladder.

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10
Q

What are the funtions of the kidney?

A

–ultrafiltration of blood (pressure driven proccess, plasma is filtered)

–Regulation of:
Blood volume (blood pressure and osmolality)
Concentration of blood solutes (Na,Cl,K,Ca,HPO)
Acid-base balance (excrete H, absorb HCO)

–Excretion of waste (urea, creatinine, uric acid, drugs) LESS THAT 1% OF FILTERED, IS EXCRETED

–Production of hormones:
Erythropoietin - RBS synthesis

Activation of Vitamin D - from calcidiol to calcitriol by hydroxylation

Renin - Regulation of blood pressure

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11
Q

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

A

The nephrons.

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12
Q

What structures make up the nephron?

A 
Renal corpuscle
Proximal tubule
loop of henle (descending and ascending limb)
distal tubule
1 million in each kidney
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13
Q

Is the collecting duct part of the nephron?

A

NO

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14
Q

What are the two types of nephrons?

A

Cortical: These have loops of henle that don’t extend deep into the medulla (80-85%) NO VASA RECTA, JUST PERITUBULAR ARTERIOLES

Juxtamedullary: Have nephrons that extend deep into the medulla (15-20%) HAVE VASA RECTA

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15
Q

Are the kidneys the only source of erythropoietin?

A

No, it is just has the most, therefore if someone was in kidney failure they could still make RBCs

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16
Q

Which nephron has vasa recta?

A

Juxtamedullary

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17
Q

What is the difference between the parietal and the visceral layers of the bowmans capsule?

A

The visceral layer is the cells directly on top of the capillaries (glomerulus), these are called podocytes. They are not very close to the parietal layer.

The parietal layer is the outside layer of the capsule.

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18
Q

What structures form the filtration membrane?

A

Podocyte cell processes

Basement membrane

Capillary endothelium

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19
Q

What structures form the juxtaglomerular apparatus?

A

Juxtaglomerular cells RING OF SPECIALIZED SMOOTH MUSCLE (produce and secrete renin)

Macula Densa

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20
Q

What cells secrete renin?

A

Juxtaglomerular cells.

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21
Q

What determines the glomerular capillary pressure?

A

The afferent arteriole has a larger diameter than a efferent arteriole.

This creates a pressure.

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22
Q

Where in the nephron is most of the filtered water and solutes reabsorbed?

A

Proximal convoluted tubule WATER FOLLOWS

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23
Q

Are both limbs of the loop of henle similar in structure?

A

They are different in terms of structure.

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24
Q

Which limb of the loop of henle is not permeable to water?

A

Ascending limb, therefore the descending vasa recta do not have aquaporin channels.

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25
Q

Are the limbs of the loop of henle similar in terms of function?

A

The descending limb is permeable to water and allows reabsorption of water PASSIVELY

The ascending limb allows for solutes to be reabsorber and doesn’t have any water channels.

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26
Q

Which 3 hormones act on the distal tubules and the collecting ducts?

A

ADH - Increases water reabsorpbtion making urine more concentrated.

Aldosterone - Na+ reasbsorbed, water follows by osmosis, making urine more concentrated.

Atrial natriuretic hormone - Na+ reabsorbtion and ADH are inhibited, making urine more dilute

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27
Q

How does ADH work?

A
  1. A decrease in the plasma volume cause an increase in osmotic pressure on the capillary.
  2. ADH binds to the ADH receptor on membrane on tubule.
  3. The G protein on the ADH receptor causing the Alpha portion of the G protein to activate adenylate cyclase.
  4. Adenylate cyclase creates cAMP (secondary messenger)
  5. This allows aquaporin channels to open up, allowing water to flow from the tubule, thrugh aquaporin channels, into the capillary, increasing plasma volume and restoring normal osmolality
28
Q

What is diabetes insipidus?

A

This is a dysfunction of ADH and reabsorbtion of water, making urine volume much higher than normal.

29
Q

What type of epithelium is found in the ureter and urinary bladder?

A

Transitional epithelium.

30
Q

What are the mechanisms that form/maintain the medullary osmalality gradient important for urine concentration?

A

countercurrent - small differences in osmolality horizontally between ascending and descending limbs is multiplied, cauising a larger vertical osmolality difference.

urea recycling

31
Q

What is renin?

A

Secreted when there is a drop in blood pressure at the afferent arteriole, or after stimulation by the cells of the macula densa after a drop in sodium concentration at the distal tubule.

32
Q

Carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer system equation?

A

H2O + CO2 —- H2CO3 —- H + HCO3

The number of Ions do not change!

REMEMBER FREE HYDROGEN IONS ONLY EFFECT PH!

33
Q

Is carbonic acid strong or weak?

A

Weak, because it does not fully dissociate, but it can dissociate more or less.

ONLY WEAK ACIDS AND BASES ARE PART OF BUFFER SYSTEMS!

34
Q

What are the functions of the reproductive system?

A

Production of Gametes

Fertilization

Development and nourishment of new individual

Production of reproductive hormones

35
Q

What are the functions of the dartos and cremaster muscles?

A

regulate the temperature of the testis and the internal structures of the scrotum.

Dartos is slower acting and gradually contracts the sac to maintain optimal temperature. (similar to labia in female)

Cremaster acts quickly like a reflex in response to things like the environment. (no female equivalent)

BOTH DO SAME THING, BUT AT DIFFERENT SPEEDS

36
Q

What are the glands involved in production of semen and ejaculation?

A

testes produce sperm cells

Seminal vesicle secretes fluid 60% alkaline, fibrinogen, nutrients and prostoglandins

Prostate produces buffer 30% clotting factors, fibrinolysin

bulbourethral produces lubricant 10% also is buffer

37
Q

Which cells are germ cells in humans?

A

Spermatogonia

oogonia

38
Q

What is the hormonal regulation of oogenesis and menstrual cycle?

A
  1. GnRH is released from hypothalmus to the portal system then to the anterior pituitary.
  2. The anterior pituitary then secretes FSH which tells follicles to develop and secrete estrogen.
  3. Estrogen causes the endometrium to proliferate and the hypothalmus to increase LH secretion, which causes a surge in LH and FSH before ovulation.
  4. The LH surge causes the follicle to mature and ovulate, creating the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone and some estrogen.
  5. Progesterone causes the hypertrophy of the endometrium and has a negative feedback effect on FSH and LH secretion, and the corpus luteum continue to secrete progesterone for about 12 days after ovulation.
39
Q

What is meiosis?

A

This is the division of cells that go from diploid to haploid cells. (STARTS WHEN PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTES AND OOCYTES DIVIDE, BEFORE THESE CELLS IT IS MITOSIS)

40
Q

What are the cells of the testis and what do they produce?

A

Leydig cells: these produce testosterone and LH binds to them. Leydig (interstitial cells) are around seminiferous tubules.

Sertoli cells: testosterone is converted to dihydrotestosterone and estradiol. FSH binds to these cells. Sertoli (sustenacular) cells provide nourishment and support for spermatogenesis.

41
Q

Do women have a prostate?

A

Yes, skenes glands have been recognized as the womens prostate. These ejaculate a fluid similar to what comes from the prostate gland during sexual arousal.

42
Q

What are the phases of the folicle fate?

A
  1. primordial follicle (1 layer of squamos granulosa cells)
  2. Primary follicles (1 layer cuboid granulosa cells.
  3. primary follicle with more layers of cuboid granulosa cells
  4. Secondary follicle (gains fluid filled vesicles and zona pellucida)
  5. Mature (graafian) follicle (now has one big antrum and more layers)
  6. ovulation occurs (oocyte released)
  7. Corpus luteum forms
  8. after 10-12 days if pregnancy doesnt occur luteum turns to corpus albicans
43
Q

What is fertilization?

A

Sperm cell unites with secondary oocyte, 2nd meiosis is completed and zygote is formed.

44
Q

What is in vitro fertilization?

A

This is when a mature egg is taken from the ovary and fertilized by sperm in a petri dish, the egg is then implanted in the uterus after it divides a few times.

45
Q

IVF and twins?

A

There is a very large percentage of IVF mothers that give multiple births, this could be because of the number of embryo implanted in the mothers womb.

FRATERNAL (DIZYGOTIC)

46
Q

What is stimulation?

A

tactile or psychological (or both)

47
Q

How does an erection happen?

A

This is due to the relaxation of smooth muscles and the vasodilation of arteries entering the penis and constriction of veins leaving the penis.

48
Q

Why can stress cause ED?

A

Stress causes the release of cortisol and adrenaline which causes vasoconstriction which makes getting hard, HARD.

49
Q

How does sildenafil relieve problems with ED?

A

This drug inhibits cGMP-specific phosphodiesterase type 5, which is responsible for the degradation of cDMP.

cDMP is what makes the smooth muscles relax.

Calcium moves into neuron causing the release of ACh and also the synthesis of Nitric oxide, both travel across synaptic gap.

ACh binds to receptor which activates G proteins which cause relaxation of muscle and NO bind to Guanylate cyclase which makes cGMP which relazes smooth muscles as well

50
Q

What is a pap smear and its importance?

A

It is important for women to get one anually or bianually especially when older. Cervical cancer killed almost 4000 women and 12000 were diagnosed in 2010.

51
Q

What is a prostate exam?

A

prostate cancer is the most common cancer among men in the united states besides skin cancer., also leading cause of cancer death. in 2010: 196000 diagnosed and 28500 killed

men can check if their prostate is enlarged and it should be done often, especially with age.

52
Q

What is the importance of lactation and breast feeding?

A

Immune system

growth

so many more benefits than formula

also seems to be a bond formed

less crying

more stable adults (less psychotic, socially stable)

6 MONTHS OF EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING IF RECOMMENDED

53
Q

What does ploid mean?

A

The number of chormosomes in a cell.

Di - All present in pair

Ha - only one set present

Eu - normal number of chromosomes

Aneu - Abnormal number (more or less)

54
Q

How many chromosomes are in a somatic and germ cell?

A

Somatic - 46 (23 pairs)

Germ - 23

55
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

A picture of all the chromosome pairs of an organism.

56
Q

What is an amniocentesis?

A

this is a way of using the amniotic fluid for diagnostic purposes.

can show genetic disorders
karyotypes
metabolic diseases

can be inconclusive

57
Q

What do males with lower levels of testosterone also smaller scrotum have?

A

A better tendency to create bonds with their children.

Its interesting because they have a lesser chance of developing offspring from an evolutionary standpoint.

58
Q

What about males with more height?

A

Taller men are preferred by women and tend to have more babies.

59
Q

What are the key theories of aging?

A

Oxidative stress - normal cell metabolism results in generation of free radicals, we have a defense, but over time these cells accumulate, also increases with age, DNA proteins and lipids can be damaged.

Accumulation of mutations, every cell division introduces a possibility for mutation, caused by the passing on of errors in copying of DNA, some are environmental (toxins) some could be spontaneous.

60
Q

What did we say about caloric restriction?

A

It has been found that restricting calories makes animals live longer, but it has to be a drastic cut. May decrease accumulated free radicals, would need supplementation for other nutrients, 10-20% increase of life is possible

61
Q

Why is the human genome project so important?

A

2000 tests for genetic diseases

350 clinical trials based on genome project

Pharmacogenomics file - for treatment in AIDS/HIV and breast cancer

ultimate goal is individualized healthcare

62
Q

Trisomy 21?

A

Down Syndrome

increases with increased maternal age

This is because as a woman gets older, her meosis during ovulation may be less efficient leaving her with a higher probability of chromosomal defects.

63
Q

When is the sex determined?

A

fertilization

64
Q

What are ethical considerations for genomics?

A

Who gets the data

Who owns the infomation and discoveries

What are the concerns for released information

Should it be applied to human reproduction

65
Q

What is the difference in DNA in males and females?

A

Females have more DNA!

66
Q

What is trisomy 2?

A

Mosaicism, a condition where different cells have a different number or arrangement of chromosomes.

67
Q

What are risks to infant at different weeks?

A 
0-3 - none
3 - CNS
4 - CNS, Heart, Limbs, ears
5 - CNS, heart, limbs, eyes, ears
6 - CNS, eyes, ears, palate, teeth
8 - CNS, ears, palate, teeth, genitals
16 - none, some moderate risks

Anatomy and physiology II (7 decks)

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