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AUPSY 263 > Final Exam Study Term > Flashcards

Final Exam Study Term Flashcards

1
Q

“Take the Best” Heuristic

A

given two alternatives, go with the one that is preferred by (a) searching through cues in order of validity, (b) stopping the search as soon as a cue discriminates, and (c) choosing the one this cue favours.

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2
Q

Absentmindedness

A

everyday memory failures in remembering information, and intended activities, probably caused by insufficient attention or superficial, automatic processing during encoding

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3
Q

algorithm

A

is a specific solution procedure, often detailed and complex, that is guaranteed to furnish the correct answer if it is followed correctly; for example, a formula

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4
Q

analogies

A

a relationship between two similar situations, problems, or concepts.

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5
Q

apperceptive agnosia

A

A disruption in perceiving patterns. People with apperceptive agnosia cannot fill in the missing contours to perceive the whole form or pattern.

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6
Q

associative agnosia

A

the person is not able to construct a mental percept; he or she can combine the perceived features into a whole pattern, but cannot associate the pattern with the meaning, with stored knowledge about its identity.

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7
Q

associative interference

A

In associative interference conditions, knowledge is paired with one associate, and then re-paired with a different associate. For example, in locating one’s keys, one may need to differentiate where they were today (the pair keys–pocket) versus yesterday (keys–coffee table)

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8
Q

availability heuristic

A

in this heuristic we estimate the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind. “ease of retrieval” is what the term availability means here.
Estimates are influenced by the ease with which the relevant examples can be remembered.

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9
Q

bias

A

Bias is a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair. Biases can be innate or learned. People may develop biases for or against an individual, a group, or a belief.

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10
Q

blocking

A

“blocking out” distracting information. Eg. cocktail party effect, blocking out other conversations.

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11
Q

Capgras Syndrome

A

Capgras syndrome (CS), or delusion of doubles, is a delusional misidentification syndrome. It is a syndrome characterized by a false belief that an identical duplicate has replaced someone significant to the patient. In CS, the imposter can also replace an inanimate object or an animal.

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12
Q

change blindness

A

our failure to notice changes in visual stimuli when those changes occur during a saccade

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13
Q

cocktail party effect

A

The cocktail party effect refers to the phenomenon wherein the brain focuses a person’s attention on a particular stimulus, usually auditory. This focus excludes a range of other stimuli from conscious awareness, as when a partygoer follows a single conversation in a noisy room

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14
Q

cognition

A

Cognition is the “mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses

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15
Q

conceptually driven processing (top down)

A

when existing context or knowledge influences earlier or simpler forms of mental processes.

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16
Q

conditional reasoning

A

involves a logical determination of where the evidence supports, refutes, or is irrelevant to he stated if-then relationship.

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17
Q

conjunction fallacy

A

The conjunction fallacy explores how individuals commonly violate a basic probability rule by estimating probability of conjunction of two statements to be more probable than the probability they assign to at least one of its constituent statements.

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18
Q

conjunction search

A

looking for a specific combination of two features

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19
Q

consolidation

A

makes memories more and more permanent over time

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20
Q

context dependent learning

A

Context-dependent memory refers to the phenomenon where the context in which information was learned enhances the recall of that information. In other words, it’s easier to remember something when you’re in the same environment or situation in which you first learned it.

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21
Q

controlled attention

A

refers to deliberate, voluntary allocation of mental effort or concentration. You decide to pay attention to this stimulus and ignore others, and paying attention this way involves effort.

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22
Q

critical lure

A

a word that was highly related to the other words in the list but which never actually appeared.

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23
Q

data driven processing (bottoms up)

A

processing is driven by the stimulus pattern, the incoming data (environment)

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24
Q

Decay

A

forgetting caused by simply the passage of the time.

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25
declarative memory
long term memory knowledge that is retrieved and reflected on consciously. Two types of declarative memory: semantic and episodic memory
26
distributed practice
study time is spread out over many, shorter sessions.
27
divided attention
sharing our attention capacity across more than one source of information at a time, and how much information are we picking up from the several sources
28
DRM procedure
is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words (e.g., nurse, hospital, etc.) at encoding. After a delay, subjects are asked to recall or recognize these words
29
Dual coding
words that denote concrete objects, as opposed to abstract words, can be encoded into memory twice, once in terms of their verbal attributes and once in terms of their imaginal attributes. For example, the word book enjoys the advantage in memory because it can be recorded as an image and as a word.
30
Einstellung
"approach" or "orientation"
31
encoding specificity
Each item is encoded into a richer memory representation that includes the context it was in during encoding.
32
Exemplar Theory
assumes that when people think about categories, they mentally take into account each experience, instance or example, of the encounters they have had with members of that category.
33
Explicit memory
long term memory knowledge that is retrieved and reflected on consciously.
34
facilitation of return
people returning to a previously fixated location
35
false memory
memory of something that did not happen
36
family resemblance
there is a set of features that many or most of the category members have, although all features may not be present in all members
37
feature detection
a very simple visual element that can appear in combination with other features across a variety of patterns
38
feature search
the search for a simple feature
39
Filtering
the mental process of eliminating those distractions
40
forgetting curve
Formulated by Ebbinghaus. Shows the reduction in savings score across increasing retention intervals.
41
Framing
The framing effect is a cognitive bias in which people decide between options based on whether the options are presented with positive or negative connotations.
42
free recall
recalling the items in a list in any order
43
functional fixedness
is the tendency to use objects and concepts in the problem environmental only their customary and usual way.
44
Gambler's fallacy
occurs when an individual incorrectly believes that a certain random event is less likely or more likely to happen based on the outcome of a previous event or series of events.
45
Gestalt Principles
These principles show that humans tend to perceive and deal with integrated, cohesive wholes. eg. closure, good continuation, template theory, proximity, figure grounding
46
Graded membership
Members vary in how good examples of that category are. For example, the category birds, what makes a creature a bird, some birds are "better" than others.
47
Hemineglect
is the disruption or decreased ability to attend to something in the (often) left field of vision,
48
heuristics
Heuristics is the process by which humans use mental shortcuts to arrive at decisions. Heuristics are simple strategies that humans, animals, organizations, and even machines use to quickly form judgments, make decisions, and find solutions to complex problems
49
hill climbing strategy
The hill-climbing heuristic is similar to the method of trial and error. Using the hill-climbing method, a person generally picks what appears to be the most direct route to the goal at each step. If this choice proves to be incorrect, the person might choose an alternative method to see if it achieves the goal faster.
50
iconic memory
Iconic memory is the visual sensory memory register pertaining to the visual domain and a fast-decaying store of visual information. It is a component of the visual memory system which also includes visual short-term memory and long-term memory
51
inattention blindness
the failure to see an object we are looking at directly because attention is directed elsewhere
52
inference
Inferences are conclusions reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning.
53
insight
Insight is the understanding of a specific cause and effect within a particular context
54
insight problems vs non insight
A person's cognitive flexibility, fluency, and vocabulary ability are predictive of performance on insight problems, but not on non-insight problems. In contrast, fluid intelligence is mildly predictive of performance on non-insight problems, but not on insight problems.
55
interference
forgetting caused by the effects of intervening stimulation or mental processing
56
introspection
a method in which one looks carefully inward, reporting on inner sensations and experiences. Studied by Wilhelm Wundt
57
intrusion erros
An intrusion error occurs when a person reports information that was not among a set of original materials, whether it is a list of words, a set of visual patterns, a text passage, or a sequence of autobiographical events.
58
just noticeable difference
the amount of change needed for people to detect change is called a just noticeable difference
59
lexical decision task
a timed task in which people decide whether letter strings are or are not english words.
60
long term memory
memory that involves the storage and recall of information over a long period of time (as days, weeks, or years)
61
Means-end analysis
means-ends analysis, heuristic, or trial-and-error, problem-solving strategy in which an end goal is identified and then fulfilled via the generation of subgoals and action plans that help overcome obstacles encountered along the way.
62
Memory
the mental capacity or faculty of retaining and reviving facts, events, impressions, etc., or of recalling or recognizing previous experiences
63
misattribution
the inability to distinguish whether the original event or some later event was the true source of information
64
misinformation effect
people incorrectly claiming to remember the information
65
negative set
this is a bias or tendency to solve problems in a particular way, using a single specific approach, even when a different approach might be more productive.
66
paired association task
involve learning and remembering the associations between stimuli that are artificially associated (e.g., abstract figures with pseudowords).
67
parallel processing
multiple mental processes can operate simultaneously. eg. typing
68
perception
our recognition and interpretation of sensory information. Perception also includes how we respond to the information. We can think of perception as a process where we take in sensory information from our environment and use that information in order to interact with our environment.
69
visual persistence
the apparent persistence of a visual stimulus beyond its physical duration
70
pragmatic interference
Pragmatic inference refers to inferences that hearers or observers make when attempting to arrive at speaker meaning,
71
Priming
A word that activated or primes its meaning in memory, and as a consequence, primes or activates meanings closely associated with it.
72
proactive interference
when older material interferes forward in time with your recollection of the current stimulus
73
problem solving set
A mental set is a tendency to only see solutions that have worked in the past. This type of fixed thinking can make it difficult to come up with solutions and can impede the problem-solving process.
74
procedural memory
implicit memory is often called procedural memory. This refers to memory that is involved in motor tasks, such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, play a musical instrument, play a sport, etc.
75
process model
is a hypothesis about the specific mental processes that take place when a particular task is performed
76
production task
a cognitive test in which the participant is required to generate as many items as possible that adhere to specified criteria.
77
Prosopagnosia
the inability to identify faces.
78
prototype theory
central, core instance of a category
79
rating task
80
reaction time
interval of time between presentation of stimulus and appearance of appropriate voluntary response in a subject
81
recall
Recall in memory refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past.
82
recency effect
the level of correct recall on the final items of the originally presented list
83
recognition
a form of remembering characterized by a feeling of familiarity when something previously experienced is again encountered;
84
recognition heuristic
where you base a decision on whether you recognize the thing to be judged
85
representativeness heuristic
an estimate of the probability of an event is determined by one of two features, how similar the event is to the population of events it came from or whether the event seems similar to the process that produced it.
86
retroactive interference
newer material interferes backward in time with your recollection of older items
87
satisfcing heuristic
Satisficing is a decision-making strategy or cognitive heuristic that entails searching through the available alternatives until an acceptability threshold is met.
88
schema
is a mental framework or body of knowledge about some topic.
89
scripts
the semantic knowledge that guides our understanding ordered.
90
semantic congruity effect
The semantic congruity effect is exhibited when adults are asked to compare pairs of items from a series, and their response is faster when the direction of the comparison coincides with the location of the stimuli in the series.
91
semantic memory
Semantic memory is conscious long-term memory for meaning, understanding, and conceptual facts about the world.
92
sensation
the transformation of an environmental stimulus into a neural impulse the brain can use that makes an organism aware of its surroundings.
93
sensory memory
the perception of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch information entering through the sensory cortices of the brain and relaying through the thalamus.
94
sensory threshold
The sensory threshold is the weakest stimulus an organism can detect a sensation.
95
sentence verification task
simple sentences are presented for the yes/no decisions
96
sequential stages of processing
Memory involves three basic processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. One important aspect of understanding memory is how these processes operate.
97
serial position curve
graph of item by item accuracy on a recall task. Serial position simply refers to the original position an item had in a study list.
98
serial processing
cognitive processes are executed in series, one after another.
99
serial search
In serial search, only one stimulus is attended at a time,
100
short term memory
Short-term memory (STM), also referred to as short-term storage, or primary or active memory indicates different systems of memory involved in the retention of pieces of information (memory chunks) for a relatively short time (usually up to 30 seconds)
101
signal detection theory
Detection theory or signal detection theory is a means to measure the ability to differentiate between information-bearing patterns and random patterns that distract from the information
102
situation models
a mental representation that serves as a simulation of a real or possible world as described by a text.
103
standard theory
One of the first models to receive acceptance: includes 3 main components: sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory
104
stereotypes
a stereotype is a generalized belief about a particular category of people. It is an expectation that people might have about every person of a particular group
105
Sternberg task
a short term memory scanning task. People are given a short list of letters, one at a time, at the rate of one per second, called the memory set.
106
stimulus
a stimulus is any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response in an organism
107
stroop task
people are given a series of coloured words printed in a colour that may be inconsistent with the word names; example the word red printed in blue ink. The Stroop effect is that people are slower to name the color a word is printed in if the word and ink colour are inconsistent.
108
suggestibility
the tendency to incorporate information provided by others into your own recollection and memory representation
109
syllogistic reasoning
Syllogism is a 3 statement logical form, with the first 2 parts stating the premises taken to be true, and the 3rd part stating a conclusion based on those premises. The goal of syllogistic reasoning is to understand how different premises can be combined to yield logically true conclusions and to understand what combinations of premises lead to invalid or incorrect conclusions.
110
symbolic distance effect
The symbolic distance effect describes the fact that the “time needed to compare two symbols varies inversely with the distance between their referents on the judged dimension
111
template theory
stored models of all categorizable patterns
112
transience
the tendency to lose access to information across time, whether through forgetting, interference, or retrieval failure.
113
types of attention
input attention and controlled attention
114
types of interference
retroactive interference & proactive interference
115
typicality
the degree to which items are viewed as typical, central members of a category
116
Wason Card Problem
Four cards are visible to you, and each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other. The task is to pick the card or cards you would turn over to gather conclusive evidence on the following rule: if a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even number on the other side.
117
Word Frequency effect.
it takes longer to judge words of lower frequency than higher frequency words.

AUPSY 263 (4 decks)

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