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neurosci > FINAL EXAM REVIEW > Flashcards

FINAL EXAM REVIEW Flashcards

1
Q

Learning and memory:

Describe the 4 types of learning:

A

Perceptual learning: Learning to recognize stimuli as distinct entities

Motor learning: Learning to make skilled, choreographed movements. Procedural learning.

Relational learning: Learning relationships among individual stimuli (stimulus-stimulus learning) (describing a scene, location, interaction)

Stimulus response learning: Learning to perform a particular behavior when a particular stimulus is present. Includes classical and instrumental conditioning.

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2
Q

Perceptual learning is ___ and ___, meaning:

A

Unconscious and implicit,
meaning that we can recognize changes from stimuli and respond.

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3
Q

Which parts of the brain are involved for motor learning:

A

-Cerebellum, thalamus, basal ganglia, motor cortex

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4
Q

For relational learning, how does the hippocampus and neocortex create memory consolidation?

A

hippocampus converts short term memories into explicit long term memories (memory consolidation)

Overtime memories become less dependent on the hippocampus, and can be retrieved if the hippocampus is lost.

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5
Q

In stimulus response learning, give an example of classical and instrumental conditioning;

A

Classical: association between two stimuli
ex. learning from reinforcement or punishment, pavlov’s dog

Instrumental: learning from consequences of own actions, from reinforcement or punishment,
-Likelihood of actions repeated depends on whether they were reinforced, punished or inconsequential

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6
Q

What are the 3 types of memory? What is declarative (episodic and semantic)

A

A) Sensory: Initial sensation of environmental stimuli remembered

B) Short term: Limited to a few items

C) Long term: Relatively permanent, consolidated

Declarative memory: consciously accessible memories of events and facts.

-Episodic (recollection of temporal contextual information, autobiographical)

-Semantic (facts, general info without context you didn’t experience, acquired over time)

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7
Q

What is Amnesia and anterograde amnesia, and retrograde amnesia?

A
  • Amnesia (memory deficit from damage or disease)

-Anterograde amnesia: refers to the inability to learn or retain new info after injury. Memory is usually only of events occurred before injury,

Retrograde amnesia: inability to remember events that occurred before brain injury.

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8
Q

Language:

What are the left and right hemispheres for?

Specify what Broca’s area, Wernick’s area and posterior language area do?

A

left: where language is almost entirely localized for most people.
right: understands how people use language

-Brocas: Broca’s area (frontal lobe): speech production, may be involved for muscle movements for speech production

-Wernicke’s area (left hemisphere): recognition of words, speech, and producing meaningful speech

-Posterior language area: Interface between Wernick’s area and perceptions and memory

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9
Q

What are some effects of damaged left and right hemispheres, phonagnosia?

A

When damaged: People become literal in their interpretation of language

Phonagnosia: disorder where people have difficulty recognising familiar voices.

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10
Q

What are the 2 main difficulties of aphasia (speech disorder), and where does the damage correspond to them

A

-Difficulty producing language:
Damaged frontal lobe: Anterior aphasia, motor aphasia, non-fluent aphasia, Broca’s aphasia, expressive aphasia

-Difficulty comprehending language:
Damaged sensory association cortex: posterior aphasia, sensory aphasia, fluent aphasia, fluent aphasia, Wernick’s aphasia, receptive aphasia

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11
Q

What are the 3 issues of Broca’s aphasia? give each an example:

A
  1. Articulation problems: LIKSTIP instead of LIPSTICK
  2. agrammatism: cant understand grammar, “cow got kicked by horse” but cant differentiate them
  3. Anomia: Roundabout way of speech, the things that boils water, instead of kettle..
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12
Q

What type of reading process recognizes word as whole (sight)? and which decodes significant letters (sound)?

What types of dyslexia pertain to each?

A
  1. whole word reading (sight): surface dyslexia, error with visual appearance
  2. phonetic reading (sound): phonological dyslexia, deficits in reading, difficulty reading unfamiliar words
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13
Q

What is the difference between phonological dysgraphia and orthographic dysgraphia? And what location is damaged to each? (writing deficits)

A
  1. Cannot spell words by sounding them out: damage to frontal regions (Broca’s)
  2. Cannot spell words by visualizing them: damage to cWFA
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14
Q

Neuro disorders

What is the difference between an Ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke?

What are some risk factors leading to stroke?

What is atherosclerosis (plaque)?

A

-Hemorrhagic stroke: Rupture of cerebral blood vessel

-Ischemic stroke: When thrombus (blood clots) or embolous (piece of matter) block the blood vessels to the brain/ reduce blood flow

-High blood pressure, cigarette smoking, diabetes, age..

-Where the lining of arteries develop plaque, decreasing blood flow.

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15
Q

What are the two types of tumors, what makes them different?

What are the two ways tumors can damage the brain

A

-Non malignant: non cancerous, has distinct borders, it cannot spread. (meningiomas)

-Malignant: cancerous, lacks boarders, infiltrates surrounding tissues. (gliomas)

  1. compression: push brain
  2. infiltration: destroys cells
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16
Q

Infections of the brain:

what is the difference between encephalitis and meningitis what are the symptoms?

A
  1. inflammation of brain caused by infection (headaches, fever, nausea)
    –> polio, rabies, herpes
  2. inflammation of meninges caused by virus (headaches, stiffness)
17
Q

What is the most common cause of death among young people? What are the forms of it?

A

-traumatic brain injury

1.closed head :
-coup injury, brain contact inside of skull
-contrecoup, injury occurs opposite area that was hit

2.open head: penetration of brain

18
Q

Whats the difference between partial and generalized seizures, what are the 4 stages of generalized?

Why don’t children have tonic-clonic seizures?

What will increasing inhibitory synapses do?

A
  1. the seizure is defined and focused where neurons involved are restricted to small part of the brain (localized)
  2. Generalized: has 4 phases

-Aura: sensation that precedes seizure, nature depends on the location seizure focus

-Tonic phase: first phase, all patients skeletal muscles are contracted

-Clonic phase: second phase, patient shows rhythmic jerking movements

-Tonic-clonic seizure: generalized, grand mal seizure, convulsions

-because they have brief, petit mal seizures

-It will act as an anticonvulsant

19
Q

Neuro degenerative

What best describes metabolic disorders?
what is the difference between PKU (most common) and Tay Sach’s disease?

A

-inherited mutations of some enzymes (proteins) can cause brain damage or impair brain development.

1.excess amount of phenylalanine (amino acids), interferes with myelination= treated with low phenylalanine diet.

  1. causes the brain to swell and damage itself against the inside of the skull and against the folds of dura mater (waste cannot be destroyed)
20
Q

Why is down syndrome congenital?

A

-it is present at birth, but not hereditary
-results in abnormal development in the brain, producing intellectual disability in varying degrees.

21
Q

How would MS be described (demyelination)?

What is remitting-relapsing? how do you treat it?

A

-shows within ages 20-30s
-Autoimmune demyelination disease: demyelination interferes with axons, action potentials cannot occur
(cause unknown, immune system attacks itself)

-pattern of slow increase in symptoms
treat: modulate immune system= interferon B
-expose kid to lots of viruses

22
Q

Huntingtons:

1.Part of brain:
2.symptoms:
3.Hereditary?
4.treatment:

A

1.Basal ganglia
2.uncontrollable movement, not purposeful
3.yes, mutation of gene
4.no direct treatment, antisense DNA therapy

23
Q

Parkinsons
1.part of brain:
2.symptoms:
3. hereditary?
4. treatment:

A
  1. nigrostriatal system (dopamine path)
  2. muscular rigidity, slow movement, tremor
  3. yes, mutation on chromosome 4
  4. L-DOPA: helps create more dopamine, alleviate symptoms temporarily or
    deep brain stimulation when no longer responding to L-DOPA
24
Q

Dementia:

symptoms:

A

Progressive impairments to memory, thinking behavior that affects the ability to perform everyday activities as a result of neurological disorders.

precursor to: strokes, brain trauma, MS

25
Q

Alzheimer’s

1.part of brain:
2.symptoms:
3. hereditary?
4. treatment:

A
  1. misfolded B amyloid, neuro degeneration of hippocampus and neocortex
    2.progressive memory loss, motor deficits, death
  2. yes/no
  3. no treatment, just medications to reduce symptoms
26
Q

Psychological disorders

Schizophrenia
1.Cause: (environmental)
2.symptoms:(negative, cognitive, positive)
3. heritable?
4. treatment:

A
  1. pregnancy issues, birth month, isolation, trauma
  2. negative: social withdrawal, decrease activity in frontal lobes
    cognitive: Irrational thinking, deficits in learning, memory
    positive: delusions, hallucinations
  3. yes, if both parents have 50%
  4. no cure, medications, psych support
27
Q

for schizophrenia, what is the dopamine hypothesis? What can a partial agonist do for this?

A

-Excessive dopamine D2 receptor activity, underlies positive symptoms of SZ
but…
Reduced dopamine in the PFC may underlie some negative symptoms

-can reduce activity in regions with high concentration and can boost activity in regions with low concentration.

28
Q

Autism, mood disorders

Autism
1.Cause:
2.symptoms:
3. heritable?
4. treatment:

A
  1. genetic variations, gene mutation
  2. social impairment, compulsive ritualist behavior
  3. yes, 70-90%
  4. Reduce impacts of deficits, phycological treatments, special ed programs
29
Q

Bipolar

1.Cause:
2. symptoms: (mania, depression)
3. heritable?
4. treatment:

A
  1. environmental factors, triggers
  2. mania: euphoria, not justified
    depression: crash, sad and hopeless
  3. yes
  4. Lithium: treats manic phase, stabilizes mood (decrease dopamine)
30
Q

Major depressive disorder:

1.Cause: (environmental)
2.symptoms:
3. heritable?
4. treatment:

A
  1. environmental (trauma, abuse)
  2. Low mood, unworthiness, guilt
  3. yes, 40% genetic risk
  4. Medications: increase serotonin, norepinephrine signaling, deep brain stimulation, SSRI (antidepressants)
31
Q

for depression, what is the monoamine hypothesis:

A

-depression is caused by insufficient monoamine receptor activity
Raise levels, depression will go away

-Serotonin depletion can elicit depressive episodes in those susceptible to depression

but it is hard to track serotonin levels in humans

SSRI increase serotonin, but not for a while

32
Q

Stress disorders, anxiety

stress
1.Cause: (cortisol)
2.symptoms: (physiological process)
3. effects of stress

what do glucocorticoids hormones do?

A

1.Physiological reaction caused by the perception of aversive of threatening situations (fight or flight)
2. hypothalamus= CRH,
CRH= ACTH,
ACTH= cortisol,
cortisol= increased HR, BP, and blood flow to muscles= stress
3. Chronic stress= damage hippocampus
trauma linked to smaller pfc

-increased signaling can increase bp, damage muscle tissue, supress immune system

33
Q

PSTD
1.cause:
2.symptoms:
3.treatment:

A

1.mental disorder develop after traumatic events (war, assault..)
2.Disturbing thoughts, mental/physical distress, hopelessness, suicide
3. Cognitive therapy, group therapy, SSRI (antidepressants)

34
Q

anxiety
1.part of brain affected
2.cause:
3. 4 different types:
4.treatment:

A
  1. amygdala increase, pfc decrease
  2. genetic and environmental
  3. General, social (fear judgement from others), panic (intense fear), agoraphobia (fear of leaving home)
  4. lifestyle changes, exercise, sleep, CBT, SSRIs
35
Q

OCD
1.cause:
2.symptoms:
3.hereditary?
4.treatment:

A
  1. after brain damage (basal ganglia, pfc)
  2. obsessions and compulsions, negative thoughts
  3. yes, 50% risk
    4.CBT, SSRIs sometimes, cingulotomy
36
Q

Addiction:
1.What?
2.heritable?
3.symptoms (tolerance, withdrawal):
4.treatments:

A
  1. Reinforcement learning: addictive drugs positively reinforce behavior, consequences of action are immediate (heroin vs morphine)
  2. yes, 40-60% risk
  3. Tolerance: drug effects get smaller with repeated use, need greater doses to achieve same effect
    Withdrawal: Appearance of symptoms opposite of those produced by drugs when the drug is not take
  4. Naltrexone: opioid receptor antagonist (slow)
    Naloxone: opioid receptor antagonist (fast)
37
Q

ADHD
1.what?
2.heritable?
3.symptoms:

A

1.Mental disorder, problems paying attention
2. yes, 70-90% risk
3. Difficulty controlling behaviors in age appropriate manner, Hyperactivity

neurosci (16 decks)

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