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POTH 455 > Final exam > Flashcards

Final exam Flashcards

1
Q

what Provides basic wiring of the brain’s circuitry

A

synaptic plasticity

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2
Q

in what is synaptic plasticity involved in?

A

Memory
Learning
Rehabilitation

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3
Q

until what age are synapses continued to be made in the brain

A

until 2 years old

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4
Q

what are the different mechanisms of brain plasticity available to the young CNS

A

1) Growth of axons and dendrites
2) Pruning of branches
3) Creation of synapses
4) Death of neurons
5) Changes in synaptic strength (LTP)

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5
Q

What is the critical period when talking about neuroplasticity?

A

maturational stage in the lifespan of an organism during which the nervous system is especially sensitive to certain environmental stimuli

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6
Q

what test was conducted to determine the importance of the critical period in child development?

A

monocular deprivation lead to development of vision in only one eye

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7
Q

how is neuroplasticity involved in learning

A

help to adapt an individual’s brain according to the relative amount of usage and functioning

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8
Q

what is learning?

A

Change in behavior that results from acquired knowledge about the world

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9
Q

what is memory?

A

Process by which that knowledge in encoded, stored and later retrieved

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10
Q

what can be remembered with memory?

A

People & places
Language
Motor skills
Personal identity

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11
Q

in cases of injury what may happen to the sensory or motor maps?

A

they may be remapped to adapt to new pathways

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12
Q

in the case of amputation to the sensory maps?

A

the map occupied by the missing body part is now a map of the adjacent finger

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13
Q

what are some terms associated to neuroplasticity in adults?

A 
Reorganization
Learning
Memory
Adaptation
Functional recovery
Recuperation
Rehabilitation
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14
Q

why does axon regeneration in the CNS fail?

A

environment surrounding CNS lesions is inhibitory to axon growth
most CNS axons only mount a feeble regeneration response after they are cut

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15
Q

what was hypothesized in hebb’s postulate?

A

coordinated activity of a presynaptic terminal and a postsynaptic neurons strengthens the synaptic connection between them

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16
Q

what is explained by hebb’s postulate?

A

the cellular basis of memory and learning

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17
Q

what are the different forms of short term plasticity?

A

facilitation
augmentation
potentiation
depression

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18
Q

what is the timescale associated with short term plasticity?

A

tens of milliseconds to a few minutes

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19
Q

what is affected in short term plasticity?

A

the amount of neurotransmitter released from presynaptic terminals in response to a presynaptic action potential either increase of decrease

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20
Q

what is short term plasticity caused by?

A

persistent actions of calcium ions within the presynaptic terminal

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21
Q

what are the main factors associated with long term plasticity?

A

strengthens synapses
basis for changes in brain functions that last weeks, months, years
underlies behavioral modification

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22
Q

how does long term potentiation happen?

A

Few seconds of high frequency electrical stimulation can enhance synaptic transmission in the hippocampus for day even weeks by producing changes in the synapses

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23
Q

what happens to a single stimulation after a strong activation?

A

increase EPSP.

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24
Q

who described LTP? and when?

A

Described in 1973 by Terje Lømo and Tim Bliss

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25
Q

LTP required the binding of what NT to what type of receptor?

A

binding of glutamate to NMDA receptors

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26
Q

what happends suring postsynaptic depolarization in LTP?

A

Glutamate binds to NMDA receptor thus expelling Mg2+ from the channel and allowing Ca2+ to enter

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27
Q

what timescales are associated with longterm forms of plasticity?

A

30 minutes of longer

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28
Q

long term forms of plasticity arise from what?

A

Post-translational modifications of existing proteins, most notably changes in the trafficking of glutamate receptors

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29
Q

what are changes produced during later phases of LTP?

A

gene expression changes

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30
Q

in what regions of the brain can LTP be seen to happen?

A

amygdala, cerebellum and cerebral cortex`

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31
Q

Growing and adapting quality ofdendritic spinesthat provide the basis

A

Synaptic plasticity and learning and memory

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32
Q

what is habituation

A

simple form of short term memory that allows our body to habituate to certain stimulis (touch, smell, etc) which at first we feel but then get used to

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33
Q

what is sensitization

A

simple form of long term memory

its the generalization of an aversive response elicited by a noxious stimulus to a variety of non noxious stimulus

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34
Q

what is short term memory?

A

its is quickly acquired but quickly forgotten
useful for immediate recell
assess speech and visuospatial info

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35
Q

what type of memory is associated with changes in neural firing pattern and neuromodulator/transmitter release?

A

short term memory

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36
Q

what are the properties of long term memory?

A

slow process but long lasting

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37
Q

what type of memory is associated with plastic changes in the brain (number and strength of the synapses)

A

long term memory

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38
Q

the vestibular system Process sensory information underlying motor responses

A

Self-motion
Head position
Spatial orientation relative to gravity
Helping to stabilize gaze, head and posture

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39
Q

the vestibular system is important for the evaluation of what type of injury?

A

injury at the brainstem

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40
Q

what bone composes the vestibular system?

A

temporal bone

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41
Q

what is the function of the semicirular canal?

A

provides information about rotational acceleration

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42
Q

where are the hair cells of the vestibular system responsible for?

A

allow to detect motion and send AP to the cortex and cerebellum

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43
Q

vestibular N is a branch of what CN?

A

CN 8

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44
Q

what fluid fills the vestibular system?

A

endolymph which is high in calcium

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45
Q

where are vestibular cells located?

A

ampulla

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46
Q

what is contained in the otolith organ

A

utricle and saccule

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47
Q

what is the fluid that fills the membranous sacs in the vestibular system?

A

endolymph

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48
Q

what are the longer hair cells called?

A

kinocillium

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49
Q

what are the shorter hair cells called?

A

sterocillia

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50
Q

what happens in the case that the movement of the endolymph strikes the haircells in the direction of them?

A

it allows the channels to open and release Ca2+ therefore increasing the amount of APs that are fired (more depolarizedP

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51
Q

what happens in the case that the movement of the endolymph strikes the haircells in the opposite direction of them?

A

haircells are not deflected therefore the cell hyperpolarizes and reduces the amount of APs that are fired

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52
Q

what is the name of the cristals that float in the endolymph?

A

otoconia

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53
Q

what is the function of the otoconia?

A

it will pull on the liquid and hair cells in a given direction

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54
Q

what happens to the otoconia in cases of TBI?

A

the calcium crystals may be displaced and will move around causing imbalances leading to vertigo

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55
Q

how many kilocilium does each hair cell

A

one

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56
Q

what hair cell is responsible for the mechanical openning of channels?

A

kinocilium

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57
Q

what happens when hair cells bend towards kinocilium?

A

neuron activity increases

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58
Q

what happens when hair cells bend away from kinocilium?

A

neuron activity decreases

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59
Q

what organ is responsible for horizontal acceleration?

A

utricle

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60
Q

what organ is responsible for vertical acceleration?

A

saccule

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61
Q

what is sensed by the semicircular canals?

A

rotation

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62
Q

what heppens if hair cells in the semicirular canal are hit in ther preferential direction?

A

increases AP firing

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63
Q

how do the semicirular canals lie?

A

in 3 planes

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64
Q

the vestibular system is in constant communication with what portion of the brain?

A

cerebellum

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65
Q

how does the vestibular system undergo multisensory processing?

A

it projects to different structures such as eyes, neck, limbs to ensure balance and control motion

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66
Q

what vestibular reflex directly synapses on the cerebellum?

A

vestibulo-occular reflex

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67
Q

what is the vestibulo-occular reflex?

A

involves the reflexive ete movement that counter head movemtn so that gaze is fixed

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68
Q

at what speed does the vestibulo-occur reflex occur?

A

5 ms

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69
Q

what acts as a premotor cortex for the occulomotor and abducens nerve

A

the vestibular nuclei

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70
Q

what nucleus is reached by the vestibular-cervical reflex?

A

MEDIAL VESTIBULAR NUCLEUS

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71
Q

what does the VCR respond to?

A

semicircular canal and responds to movement of the head

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72
Q

what nucleus is reached by the vestibulospinal reflex?

A

REACHES THE LATERAL VESTIBULAR NUCLEUS

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73
Q

through what tract does the VSR travel?

A

lateral vestibulospinal tract

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74
Q

what is contoled by the VCR?

A

movement of the head

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75
Q

what is controlled by the VSR?

A

movement of the body

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76
Q

in what cases does decerebration occur?

A

in cases of lesions above the vestibular system

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77
Q

what is associated to the decerebration?

A

fully extended posture

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78
Q

what is suggested by decerebration?

A

that the cerebral corthex nromally supresses the VS pathway

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79
Q

what is the vestibular pathway to the thalamus involved in?

A

in perception of body orientation in extrapersonal space

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80
Q

what happens if we have a lesion in the right parietal lobe?

A

left hemineglect syndrome

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81
Q

what portions of the thalamus recieve information from the periphery and vestibular system that gets sent to S1?

A

VPM and VPL

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82
Q

how much of our life is consumed by sleep

A

1/3

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83
Q

Does sleep occur in all mamals?

A

yes

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84
Q

is sleep associated with a decrease in brain activity

A

no

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85
Q

why is sleep impoortant

A

consolidates memory and learning retention

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86
Q

what is the role of sleep and glycogen

A

replensihed glycogen levels

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87
Q

what is the relation ebwteen sleep and energy conservation

A

temperature regulation,

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88
Q

what happens if we lack sleep

A

decreased memory and cognitive ability, mood swings hallucination

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89
Q

can we die from lack of sleep

A

yes

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90
Q

what hormone triggers sleep? when does it peak?

A

melatonin

peak at 2-4am

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91
Q

what is responsible for percievable light changes

A

melanopsin contained in the photoreceptors

92
Q

information provided from melanopsin is sent to what portion of the brain?

A

hypothalamus

93
Q

how is melatonin secretion inhibitied?

A

the presence of light captured by melanopsin signals pre-G sympathetic neurons which signal the pinealgland and prevents melatonin secretion

94
Q

what type of assessments about vision can be made by an optometrist?

A

Visual acuity, near and far
Visual fields
Binocular vision
Colour vision

95
Q

his hemineglect a visual or a cortical disorder?

A

cortical –> damage to the parietal lobe

96
Q

what are the different photoreceptors contained in the retina?

A

cones and rods

97
Q

onto what do cones and rods synapse onto?

A

bipolar cells

98
Q

what type of cells are found below the rods and cones in the visual pathway?

A

ganglion cells

99
Q

what do the ganglion cells form?

A

the optic nerve

100
Q

what types of cells increase contrast sensitivity

A

horizontal and amacrine cells

101
Q

do photoreceptors produced APs?

A

no

102
Q

what is steadily released by the photoreceptors in the dark?

A

NTs

103
Q

what happens to the photoreceptors in the presence of light?

A

the photoreceptors hyperpolarize and amount of NTs released is reduced.

104
Q

how do rods synapse on bipolar cell?

A

multiple on one bipolar cell

105
Q

how can rods be described?

A

more sensitive to light, lower acuity
function well in the dark as the signal gets amplified
big RFs

106
Q

how do cones synapse on bipolar cell?

A

one on one

107
Q

how can cones be described?

A

higher acuity but lower light sensitivity, better for spatial sensitivity.

108
Q

what photoreceptor is more concentrated in fovea and responsible for color vision and acuity?

A

cones

109
Q

what type of RF do ganglion cells have?

A

center surround

110
Q

what does center surround RF represent?

A

the central and surrounding area of the RF have opposite properties

111
Q

when do center cells “on” produce APs

A

when light is shined in the center of the RF

112
Q

when do center cells “on” not produce APs

A

when light strikes the surround area

113
Q

when does the surround area produce AP?

A

when light hits the center

114
Q

what causes the contrasting RF in center surround RFs

A

Due to inhibitory properties of horizontal cells which make synapses with different bipolar cells and photoreceptors

115
Q

how is light generally recieved in the real worl?

A

we do not receive small dots of light on single receptive fields

116
Q

when is the ganglion cell most responsive?

A

when the center is lightened up and surround is dark

117
Q

what do ganglion cells respond to best?

A

visual corners, contrasts, edges, etc

118
Q

what type of map is contained by the visual system?

A

retinotopic map

119
Q

up to where does the retinotopic map extend?

A

striate cortex

120
Q

what do ganglion cells project onto?

A

lateral genticulate bodues and superior colliculus

121
Q

onto what do the lateral genticulate bodies project onto

A

striate cortex

122
Q

what type of movement is controled by the superior colliculus?

A

reflexes and eye movements

123
Q

what type of vision occupies a large volume of Lateral genticulate bodies?

A

central vision

124
Q

how is the image on the retina?

A

inverted

125
Q

how is the lateral genticulate body organized

A

in multiple layers in both eyes, each of which is organized as a map of the retina

126
Q

what happens when the axons comming from both etes are combined in the lateral genticulate body?

A

they combine but remain segregated

127
Q

onto what area do axons leaving the LGB project onto

A

straite cortex (area 17_

128
Q

in the cortex the inputs from both eyes are combined into what?

A

dominance columns`

129
Q

dominance columns are more responsive to what?

A

visual inputs from the left or right eye

130
Q

what type of pattern is observed in the dominance columns

A 
adjacent colums are testes 
a- contralateral eye 
b- both eye
c- ipsilateral eye
pattern repeates
131
Q

what is the cytoarchitectonic region 17 known as

A

primary visual cortex

132
Q

what happens in the case of a lesion in the occipital pole

A

destruction of a portion of the retinal representation

133
Q

what do neurons in the striate cortex respond to?

A

orientation

134
Q

what do neurons respond to in the LGN

A

EDGES AND CONTRASTS

135
Q

how are edge orientations distributed within the striate cortex?

A

equally

136
Q

what is the organization within the same cortical column in the striate cortex?

A

neurons have roughly the same receptive field, the same ocular dominance and the same orientation preference

137
Q

how are neighboring columns organized in the striate cortex?

A

may have different receptive field, ocular dominance and/or orientation preference

138
Q

columnar origanization for light causes what type of neural response?

A

neurons respond to elongated bars of light

139
Q

what is the diameter of the cortical column?

A

0.5mm

140
Q

where do cortical columns rnage from?

A

Stretches from white matter to cortical surface

141
Q

what do the cortical columns consist of?

A

Consists of neurons activated by one class of receptors

142
Q

what is the function of the different visual areas ?

A

all believed to have different functions

143
Q

what is the role of the middle temporal area in te extrastriate cortex?

A

responds to moving edges

144
Q

what is the role of visual area 4?

A

color perception

145
Q

how are the axons of the olfactory system?

A

short unmyelinated axons

146
Q

onto what do the olfactory receotor neurons project onto?

A

neurons in the olfactory bulb

147
Q

how does humans smell compare to rats?

A

humand dont have the bets sens of smell. they have approximately the same amount of olfacotry neurons as rats however the space occupied by the neurons in the brain is much larger than in rats and therefore sense is much less developed

148
Q

what was the first sens detected?

A

smell

149
Q

what part transduces the signal for smell?

A

the snesory neuron itself

150
Q

how many different types of smell sensory neurons do humand have?

A

400 different or more

151
Q

where does transduction of smell occur?

A

transduction of olfactory receptor cells in olfactory epithelium

152
Q

how are the smell sensory neurons described as?

A

bipolar cells with dendrites/cilia on the surface of the epithelium

153
Q

what do the receptors in the cilia possess?

A

they have cilia that have channels that bind to specific odor molecules which triggers and AP

154
Q

what does mucus serve as?

A

mechanical trap for the odorate molecule

155
Q

what is particular about olfactory neurons?

A

they can constantly be remplaced as they remian stem cells throughout their entire life

156
Q

what are the main cells found in the olfactory bulb?

A

mitral cells and glomeulus

157
Q

onto what do axons of the olfactory receptor synapse on?

A

mitral cells

158
Q

what forms the glomerulus?

A

the synapses of the mitral cells in the olfacotry bulb

159
Q

what composes a glomerulus

A

One glomerulus: dendrites from ~25 mitral cells and axons from ~25,000 ONR axons

160
Q

what is the glomerulus sensiive to?

A

one specific odorant. this creates an odorant map

161
Q

what is formed by the arrangement of the glomerului?

A

an odorant map which enables us to recognize and associate different odors

162
Q

olfactory signals have connections to what?

A

Olfactory signals have powerful connections to cortical and subcortical areas.

163
Q

what can be evoked by olfactory signals>

A

memories (hyppocampus) and emotions (amygdala)

164
Q

how can epiliepsy be trigged by smells?

A

strong smells may trigger this due to its association with different portions of the brain

165
Q

what is the orbifrontal cortex associated with?

A

peronality

166
Q

what is the similarity between taste and smell?

A

both detect chemicals in the environment

167
Q

what provides innervation to the anterior 2/3 of the tongue

A

corda tympani a branch of facial N

168
Q

what does the glossopharygeal N innervate?

A

sensation of taste to the posterior 1/3 of the tongue

169
Q

where does the first taste synapse occur?

A

in the nucleus of the solitary tract

170
Q

where is the nucleus of the solitary tract located?

A

in medulla oblongata

171
Q

what gets depolarized by taste receptors?

A

they depolarize gustatory neurons

172
Q

where are the gustatory neurons contained?

A

taste buds

173
Q

what type of receptors are gustatory neurons?

A

chemoreceptors

174
Q

what carries the taste molecules to the receptors in the tongue?

A

saliva

175
Q

what are the 5 classes of stimuli detected by taste sensation?

A 
sweet
salty
bitter
sour
umami
176
Q

how is the acitvation of gustatory neurons based on different tastes?

A

different tastes will activate different neurons

177
Q

what is umami taste?

A

a taste sensation that is meaty or savory and is produced by several amino acids and nucleotides (such as glutamate and aspartate)

178
Q

how do gustatory messages travel to the brain?

A

travel through the BS to the thalamus and to the cortex

179
Q

how many neurons are needed for taste to reach the cortex

A

3

bs –> thalamus –> cortex

180
Q

where is the gustatory sense detected in the cortex?

A

in the frontal cortex and insula

181
Q

onto what does the solitary tract synapse on

A

VPM of thalamus –> frontal cortex
amygdala
hypothalamus

182
Q

what can be used to measure hearing loss?

A

audiogram which allows to detect the minimal threshold of spound able to be heard

183
Q

which type of frequency (high or low) travel further?

A

low frequency

184
Q

what frequencies are generally lost with loss of hearing?

A

high frequencies

185
Q

what happens to sound as it enters the round window? why?

A

sound gets amplified because of the changes in pressure

186
Q

what happens as the sound passes into scala vestibuli and scala tympani?

A

shearing between basilar and tectoral membrane which causes deflection of hair cells

187
Q

what is the function of the round window?

A

allows to move liquid back and forth, if a pull is exerted then it will yield a push motion and vice versa

188
Q

where does sound transduction occur?

A

in the organ of corti

189
Q

how does sound transduction occur?

A

the pressure wave moves the basilar membrane and hair cells the cilia are fixed to the tectoral membrane resulting in shearing forces which opens transmembrane channels and creates back and forth bending of hair cells on the tectoral membrane

190
Q

what do the generated sound potentials generate int eh auditory nerve?

A

AP in the nerve

191
Q

what forms the organ of corti?

A

Organ of Corti: hair cells + tectorial membrane + basilar membrane + other supportng cells

192
Q

where do hair cells sit on>

A

basilar membrane

193
Q

onto what do hair cells synapse on?

A

with sensory neurons found in the spiral ganglion

194
Q

what do spiral ganglion cells project onto?

A

onto the cortex and form CN 8

195
Q

what is the sens organ for hearing?

A

organ of corti

196
Q

how are the hair cells divided into?

A

inner and outer

197
Q

what is provoked by the shearing motion

A

bending of hair cells and production of receptor potential

198
Q

what is converted by the inner hair cells?

A

the mechanical shearing is converted to neural activity

199
Q

what happens when the sterocilia on inner hair cells are bent?

A

opens the ion channels

200
Q

what does the flow on K+ into hair cells release/

A

transmitter substance for hair cells and produces a generator potential in the sensory neirons of the spinal ganglion

201
Q

AP travel where to generate sounds

A

in the CNS to afferent neurons

202
Q

what type of signal is recieved from outter hair cells?

A

signal from efferent neurons

203
Q

what type of information is carried by efferent neurons in auditory system?

A

carry information from higher auditory system to cochlea

204
Q

where do the efferent neurons of the auditory system come from?

A

superior olivary complex

205
Q

what is the function of the efferent neurons of the auditory system?

A

sharpen the tuning of the inner hair cells.

206
Q

are outter hair cells sensory neurons?

A

no, they recieve information.

207
Q

what is the function of the outter hair cells?

A

they are believed to modulate the function of inner hair cells and make it much less sensitive to different sounds

208
Q

hwo are sounds converted to nerve impulses

A

cochlea will convert sound tone to movement of a portion of the basilar membrane and movement of a specific place activates a specific set of hair cells which activates a specific group of neurons and the neurons project to a specific place in the CNS maps of the auditory system

209
Q

what do the auditory maps represent?

A

a specific location represents a specific sound frequency

210
Q

what is tone?

A

a specific frequency of sound

211
Q

what do different frequncies produce in the basilar membrane?

A

different sounds produce movement of different portions of the basilar membrane allowing different group of neurons to signal different frequencies

212
Q

what do frequencies show in the auditory cortex?

A

selectivity

213
Q

what is unique to each auditory neurone

A

each have a characteristic frequency which is the frequency at which the threshold of the axon is at its lowesr

214
Q

what is the basis of tonortropic organization?

A

frequency selectivity

215
Q

what is the most common cause of hearing loss?

A

damage to the inner hair cells

216
Q

what are the main factors of inner hair cell damage

A

repeated exposure to loud noises
aging
heredity

217
Q

what does our ability to localiize sounds depend uoin

A

upon the interaction of information from two ears. Those interactions seem to occur at many levels beyond the cochlear nuclei.

218
Q

give an example of a binaural perception?

A

our ability to localize sounds

219
Q

what are the key brainstem nucleis involved in the auditory system

A

cochlear nucleus
superior olivary nucleus
inferior colliculus
MGB

220
Q

what are the main functions of the auditory nucleis

A

reflex and orienting functions

221
Q

what is the first relay nucleus of the auditory system?

A

cochlear nucleus

222
Q

what is the function of the cochlear nucleus?

A

preserve and enhance frequency information

223
Q

what type of neurons are contained in the superior olivary complex?

A

binaural neurons

224
Q

how is the superior olivary complex an example of binaural interaction?

A

the inputs from the two ears converge on the same neuron, but with different time delays dur to distance.

225
Q

what is the main fucntion of the superior olivary complex?

A

Has a role in sound localization based on the use of timing and intensity differences between the two ears. Translates speed of conduction as a delay and delay is then interpreted a an angle

226
Q

inferior colliculus recieves information from where>

A

from the olivary complex and the cochlear nucleus.

POTH 455 (6 decks)

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