final exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
how are the cells in the inferior colliculus?
A
monoaural and binaural
2
Q
most of the input to the inferior colliculus comes from where>
A
from the opposite ear
3
Q
what may the inferior colliculus fiunction in?
A
function in sound localization and integrating information from lower areas in the brainstem.
4
Q
the medial genticulate body is part of what?
A
of the thalamus
5
Q
what is the last stop in the auditory pathway before it reaches the cortex>?
A
medial genticulate body
6
Q
how is the flow of information from MGB and the cortex? why?
A
2 way flow
Feedback from the brain is tightly integrated with sensory information flowing up to the brain
7
Q
what areas of the brain are associated with the primary auditory cortex>?
A
area 41 and 42
8
Q
what is tonotropic organization?
A
neurons in the cortical auditory map are grouped according to their preferred frequency.
9
Q
what is the function of the cortical areas in the auditory cortex?
A
put sounds together and analyse its nature, if language it gets processed to language centers
10
Q
what is an emotion?
A
Any state of arousal in response to external events or memories of such events that affect, or threaten to affect, personal advantage.
11
Q
are emotions purely mental?
A
no they are also associated with bodily changes
12
Q
what type of changes occur due to emotions?
A
secretion of adrenaline and cortisol and their effects.
13
Q
how do emotions affect our behavior?
A
via the ANS and CNS
14
Q
imvolvement of ANS in emotional changes?
A
Sympathetic: ‘flight or fight’ response; use of metabolic resources
Parasympathetic: building up of metabolic resources
15
Q
invovement of CNS in emotions?
A
motor pathway involved in compex reactions
facial expression and body posture
16
Q
facial versus emotional motor paresis can lead to what?
A
different lesions can result in the loss of volontary or autonomic control of facial expressions
17
Q
amygdala recieves multisensory input from what part of the cortex?
A
frontal
18
Q
what forms the cortical limbic
A
orbital and medial prefrontal cortex
19
Q
what is the role of the amygdala?
A
- association of stimulus and reward
- fear conditionning
- pairing of a sensory input and a potential outcome
20
Q
what is the function of the connection between amygdala and the prefrontal cortex?
A
produces a Conscious experience: working memory and decision making
Multi-sensory processing
21
Q
what is the function of the connection between amygdala and the hypothalamus and BS?
A
induces a visceral ANS response
22
Q
what is the function of the connection between amygdala and the hypothalamus and hippocampus?
A
involved in memory and learning
23
Q
what is the function of the connection between amygdala and the basal ganglia?
A
induces the reward mechanism through dopamine release
24
Q
what are the main functions of the prefrontal cortex?
A
Learning and memory
Regulation of emotions
Decision-making
Long-term goals/reward
25
the prefontal cortex shares close associations with what systems?
limbic, motor and sensory
26
provide example of how the prefrontal cortext is involved in decision making and planning in respect to reward?
-gambling; win or low
27
what happens in a patient with a prefrontal lesion?
perseverate with bad choice
28
what cortex is commonly injured by TBI?
frontal
29
what are some symptoms associated with frontal cortex injury after TBI?
- Loss of spontaneity in interacting with others.
- Loss of flexibility in thinking.
- Persistence of a single thought (Perseveration).
- Inability to focus on task (Attending).
- Mood changes (Emotionally Labile).
- Difficulty with problem solving and goal planning.
30
what are some disorders associated with dysfunction of the limbic system?
- addiction
- anxiety
- mood disorders (depression)
- OCD
31
what is addiction?
the compulsive use of a substance, despite its negative or dangerous effects
32
who is most at risk of addiciton?
males
33
what are some risk factors associated to addiction?
- stress
| - peer pressure
34
what part of the brain do drugs interact with
limbic system and basal ganglia
35
what is the role of the basal ganglia?
it forms a neural feed back loop through thalamus and limbic system. it is involved in gating and regulation of the limbic system
36
what is the implication of drugs on the basal ganglia?
drug addiction will alter the regulatory function of the basal ganglia
37
what is the effect of drug consumption on dopamine
drugs may potentiate the effect of dopamine by acting on precursor cells and thus increasing amount released
38
what happens to dopamine as a result of addiction?
release of dopamine is naturally decreased
39
activation of the basal ganglia is stimulated by what?
release of dopamine
40
what types of feelings can be felt in cases of anxiety
may range from feelings of uneasiness to immobilizing bouts of terror
41
what is a generalized anxiety disorder?
Chronic, exaggerated worry, tension, and irritability that appear to have no cause or are more intense than the situation warrants
42
what is PTSD?
Anxiety induced from having experienced, witnessed, or participated in a traumatic occurrence, especially if the event was life threatening
43
what are the different types of anxiety disorders?
generalized anxiety disorders
PTSD
phobias
OCD
44
what are some effect of GAD?
They can’t relax, startle easily, and have difficulty concentrating
45
what portion of the population is affected by GAD
1%
46
who is more at risk of GAD?
women
47
what age group is more prone to GAD?
childhoob and middle age
48
what are some risk factors associated to GAD?
- Depression
| - genetics
49
how can anxiety be treated?
Anti-depressants
Anti-anxiety drugs (benzodiazepines)
Beta-blockers
Cognitive-behavioural therapy
50
how can B-blockers treat anxiety?
reduces symptoms (trembling, headache, etc)
Can be given in prediction of a potentially feared situation
Good for PTSD
51
do anti-anxiety drugs function for a prolonged period of time?
no, the CNS gets used to them
52
under what mechanism doe the NS age?
unknown mechanism
53
what can be observed in an MRI of an aging brain?
- thinner cortex
- reduced white matter
- larger ventricles
54
what happens to brain size as we age?
after the age of 20, the brain size decreases gradually
55
what brain functions decline with age?
- memory
- speed of learning
- speed of problem solving
- verbal fluency
- iq
56
do all brain functions decline at the same rate?
no, different rates
57
is there a relationship between loss of brain volume and decline in cognitive functions?
no
58
can loss of neurons be compensated by cognitive capacity?
yes
59
what is senile dementia?
Loss of memory and cognitive impairments sufficient to interfere with social and occupational functioning.
60
what is the most common disease associated with senile dementia?
alzheimer's
61
what are other diseases associated with senile dementia?
Multi-infarct dementia (second most common)
Lewy body dementia
Parkinsonism
62
what can be some organic causes for senile dementia?
vitamin deficiencies and other metabolic disorders
63
can senile dementia be caused by infections?
yes bacterial and viral diseases may induce senile dementia
64
what si the incidence rate associated with alzheimer?
7% >65
40% >80
50% > 85
65
what parts of the brain are normally affected by alzheimer?
parts of the brain that control thought, memory, and language.
66
is alzheimer a normal part of aging?
no, however aging increases the risk
67
what is the cause of alzheimer? is there a cure?
cause = unknown
| cure: none
68
can motor deficits arise from alzheimer?
yes such as a shuffling gait
69
what are the structures generally affected by alzheimer
- cells in the basal forehead
- cells in the neuromodulatory system
- hippocampus
- limbic system
70
what appears in patients with alzheimer at the neuronal level?
neurofibillary tangles
71
what are neurofibillary tangles
abnormal cytoskeltal filaments which reduces the axonal transport and will affect the cytoskeleton which will eventually cause cell death
72
what is contained in senile plaques?
amyloid
73
what are senile plaques?
Extracellular deposits of abnormal protein
74
are senile plaque linked with neurofibillary plaques?
no
75
what is mostly affected by senile plaques?
Cholinergic basal forebrain are mostly affected (ACh neurons).
76
what are the main risk factors of alzheimer?
- poor health conditions
- lower education
- genetics (trisomie 21, presense of apolipoprotein e4
77
does gender have an effect on rate of alzheimer?
not determined yet
78
is PA a positive or negative risk factor to alzheimer?
protective factor
79
what is the affect of the Presence of Apolipoprotein ε4 allele
more vulnerable to brain atrophy
80
what drug treatment can be used to treat alzheimer?
cholinesterase inhibitors
81
how do cholinesterase inhibitors work?
Prevents breakdown of ACh
| Delays disease progression by 1 year in about 50% of people
82
how can plaques and tangles be treated in patients with alzheimer?
can’t be treated
83
how can alzheimer be prevented?
- PA
| - exercising brain
84
how can memory and cognitive impairments be tested?
- mini mental state exam
- test spontaneous and short term recall (repeat the 3 words; love, apple, green and then ask again at a later time)
- temporal orientation (what year are we?)
- spatial orientation (in what city are we?)
85
what is a mood disorder?
a disturbance of mood, along with either a full or partial excessively happy (manic) or extremely sad (depressive) syndrome not caused by any other physical or mental disorder.
86
what is a neurotic disorder
Sense of distress causing a deficit in functioning
87
what is a psychosis?
Loss of contact with reality
88
what is depression characterized by?
by lowered mood and decreased interest or pleasure in all activities.
89
when are symptoms of depression present?
present most of the day
90
what are some symptoms associated with depression?
Loss of apetite
Insomnia
Feeling of worthlessness and guilt
Suicidal thoughts
91
what is bipolar depressive disorder?
Repeated and alternating episodes of mania and depression
92
what are some symptoms of a maniac episode?
```
Inflated self-esteem
Increased libido and energy
Decreased sleep
Flight of ideas and pressure of speech
Increased goal-directed activities
Reckless behavior
```
93
what is the lifetime prevalence for depression? for bipolar disorder?
6% depression
| 1% bipolar
94
what is the ratio of women to men for depression
2:1
95
what is the mean age for depression
40
96
what is more affected by genetics depression or bipolar?
bipolar
97
what plays a primary role in depression?
psychosocial aspects
98
what is the reoccurance rate for depression?
70%
99
what are some risks associated with depression?
suicide
100
how does the brain activity change with depression?
Changes in activity of the limbic system in depression
101
how can depression be treated?
antidepressents (MAO inhibitors and SSRI)
psychoterapu CT
electroconvulsive therapy
102
what can be used to treat bipolar?
lithium
103
what can be used to evalluate depressive symptoms?
-beck’s depression inventory
104
what parts of the brain are involved in volontary motor control?
```
-o Motor & premotor cortex
o Motor thalamus
o Basal ganglia
Feedback loop
o Cerebellum
o Brainstem nucleus
o SC pathways
o Motor neurons
```
105
all motor signals pass through what?
SC
106
what is the main function of the premotor cortex?
o Organizes voluntary movement with respect to sensory information and provides planning for movement execution
107
when is the premotor cortex activated?
o active during movement planning (reaction time) & execution
o active when viewing others perform the same movement
108
what is the main function of the motor cortex?
o executes movements through patterns of neuronal activity that’s descend to the MN pool in the SC.
109
when is the motor cortex active?
o Active during movement execution
110
direct stimulation of the motor cortex leads to what?
execution of movement
111
where does the pyramidal pathway range from
cortex to BS or SC
112
what is the main function fo the BS?
control of posture and balance
113
what is the function of the cerebellum?
o Coordination and sequencing of motor activity
o Head and eye movements
o Posture
o Motor learning
114
what is the function of the basal ganglia
o Selection of appropriate motor activity through control of inhibition
“stop or go"
115
what types of inputs are recieved by the cerebellum?
sensory or motor
116
onto what nucleus does the purkinje cells syanpse on?
deep cerebellar nuclei
117
what are the mossy fibers?
fibers which carry cerebellar input directed from BS nuclei, SC and vestibular NUCLEI
118
onto what do mossy fibers synapse on?
granule cells and deep cerebellar nuclei directly)
119
what provides the climbing fibers?
Input from inferior olives provides the climbing fibers
120
what do climbing fibers synapse onto?
synapse with the dendrites of the purkinje cells
121
what are the main cerebellar nuclei?
dentate
interposed
fastigial
122
is the cerebellar peduncles white or grey matter?
white matter
123
whatb provides input to the cerebellum?
BS nuclei
SC
vestibular nuclei
inferior olives
124
what functional lobes of the cerebellum are involved in the UMN pathways?
- cerebrocerebellum
| - spinocerebellum
125
what is the cerebocerebellum involved in?
o Motor planning
| o Initiation of movement
126
where is signal from the cerebrocerebellum lobe sent to?
premotor cortex
127
what is the spinocerebellum involved in?
o Fine adjustment of muscle tone
| o Motor execution and coordination
128
where is signal from the spinocerebellum lobe sent to?
motor cortex and BS
129
what functional lobe of the cerebellum is involved in the LMN pathway?
• Vestibulocerebellum
130
what is the main function of the vestibulocerebellum?
o Maintenance of balance
Postural sway
Balance during stance and gait
Eye movements
131
where is information from the vestibulocerebellum sent to?
to the LMN in SC and BS involved in balance and VOR
132
what provides inputs to the cerebellum?
BS nuclei from motor and sensory areas of the cortex
SC for proprioception and somatosensory
Vestibular nuclei
133
how are outputs provided from the cerebellum?
Through deep cerebellar nuclei
UMN pathways thalamus, premotor cortex and motor cortex
LMN pathways: vestibular nuclei, reticular formation & superior colliculus then reaches the SC
134
what are the 3 layers of the cerebellum?
molecular layer
purkinje layer
granule layer
135
what layer that provides Extensive dendritic tree in molecular layer
purkinje cells
136
what layer contain GABA and function in a inhibitory manner?
purkinje cells
137
what cells are involved in the inhibitory loop and what gets shuts off?
purkinje cells and shuts off deep cerebellar nuclei
138
what can be turned on and off by the purkinje cells? provide an example
movement such as flexion and extension alternation in monkeys
139
what cells are tonically acitve?
purkinje cells
140
what is the granule layer?
• Densly packed: contains many neurons as the rest of the NS put together
141
what type of fibers does the granule layer give rise to in the molecular layer?
parallel fibers in the molcular layer
142
what type of input is recieved by the granule layer?
• Receives inputs from the cerebellum for cortical inhibitory loop
143
what are climbing fibers?
fibers which originate from olivary nucleus and synapse extensively on a single purkinje cell
144
what is the “function” of climbing fibers?
involved in Error signaling & learning
145
what do climbing fibers synapse onto?
deep cerebellar nucleu
146
what creates the cortical inhibitory loop?
created by the parallel fibers which synapses with the purkinje cells which synapses on the deep cerebellar nuclei therefore causing inactivation
147
what creates the cortical excitatory loop?
mossy & climbing fibers are sent to deep cerebellar nuclei
148
what results from the interplay of the inhibitory and excitatory loops of the cerebellum?
a “sculpting of the overall motor response.
149
what controls VOR?
o cerebellum
150
why is VOR needed?
o VOR is needed to maintain gaze direction
151
what type of cortical functions are assisted by
o Cognition and mood (depression)
o Speech
o Conditioned reflexes
o Learning abilities
(Consolidation of motor learning)
o Parallel evolution of cortex & cerebellum
152
what is ataxia?
Lack of coordination during gait
153
what is dysmetria?
Inability to make a movement of the appropriate distance or direction
154
how can dysmetria be tested?
finger to nose test
