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Bio 116H Dr Balish/Zhao > Final exam > Flashcards

Final exam Flashcards

1
Q

common challenges for multicellular and multi-tissue organisms

A
  1. support
  2. gas exchange
  3. nutrient transport
  4. water removal
  5. water balance
  6. temperature maintenance
  7. communication/control
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2
Q

convergent evolution

A

results in similar adaptations of diverse organisms facing the same challenges

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3
Q

multicellular animal with sac-like structures

A

tissues layer that are 2-cells thick, each cell uses diffusion for molecule exchange, early plants have similar adaptations

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4
Q

examples of flat multicellular organisms

A

seaweed, flatworm and nudibranch mollusk

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5
Q

what causes diverse life forms to emerge?

A

competition and natural selection

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6
Q

what emerged from the sac-like animal form as a result of competition and natural selection?

A

cells bathed in interstitial fluid for exchange rather than external fluid, tube like form with specialized organ along the tube

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7
Q

how did animals increases surface area as they evolved?

A

branching and folding

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8
Q

purpose of organ systems working together

A

maintain homeostasis

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9
Q

list of 4 main types of animal tissues

A
  1. epithelial
  2. connective
  3. muscle
  4. nervous
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10
Q

epithelial tissue

A
  1. cover and line body
  2. cells are tightly joined together
  3. can be simple or stratified
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11
Q

connective tissue(list types)

A
  1. consist of fibrous tissue, loose connective tissue and mineralized connective tissue
  2. bind and support other tissues
  3. have many specialized cells
  4. sparsely packed cells in extracellular matric of protein fibers
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12
Q

Loose connective tissue

A

binds epitelial tissues, holds organs in place, adipose, blood

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13
Q

fibrous connective tissues

A

tendons, muscle, bone, and ligaments

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14
Q

ligaments

A

fibrous connective tissue that holds joints

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15
Q

mineralized connective tissue

A

bones, osteoblasts and osteoclasts

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16
Q

list of types of muscle tissue

A
  1. striated
  2. smooth
  3. cardiac
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17
Q

striated tissue

A

muscle tissue responsible for voluntary movement

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18
Q

general purpose of muscle tissue

A

different arrangements of actin and myosin fibers

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19
Q

smooth tissue

A

muscle tissue responsible for involuntary movements

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20
Q

cardiac tissue

A

muscle tissue responsible for contraction of the heart

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21
Q

purpose of fibers in tissue+example

A

fibers give strength and flexibility(collagen), join connective tissue to other tissues

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22
Q

elastic fibers

A

snap back to original shape and origin

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23
Q

nervous tissue types and function

A
  1. Neurons: transmit impulses

2. glial: support cells

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24
Q

how do organisms overcome the challenge of moving molecules?

A

tissues, organs and organ systems

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25
Q

how do organisms overcome the challenge of coordination and control

A

multi-tissue and multi-organ systems

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26
Q

Endocrine system

A
  1. hormones are released upon receiving a signal

2. often in conjunction with nervous system

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27
Q

endocrine system signaling

A

stimulus is received by endocrine cell and signal travels everywhere, releasing hormones

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28
Q

neuron signaling

A

stimulus reaches cell body/neuron and travels to a specific location, causing a nerve impulse and traveling to the axons

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29
Q

what regulates internal environment?

A

control mechanisms

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30
Q

strategies for maintaining balance(types+functions)

A
  1. regulator: internal mechanisms maintain internal setpoints despite external changes
  2. conformer: internal conditions can vary with environmental changes
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31
Q

how can an organism be a regulator and conformer simultaneously?

A

they can be a regulator for one environmental aspect and a conformer for another aspect

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32
Q

how do trees survive freezing temperatures?

A

increase fluidity of membranes and add sugar to xylem and phloem to act as antifreeze

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33
Q

types of heat exhchange in animals

A
  1. radiation
  2. evaporation
  3. convection
  4. conduction
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34
Q

heat exchange in endotherms

A

keep internal temp constant but out layers can change. On a cold day warm blood comes from the arteries and outer vessels constrict to reduce heat loss, inner vessels dilate to allow blood to bypass colder surface vessels, vice versa on a hot day

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35
Q

counter-current strategy

A

a strategy for heat exchange, in which warms veins are near cold veins to give heat to the cold veins

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36
Q

long term endotherm heat regulation strategy

A

they acclimatize after prolonged exposure to an environment

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37
Q

gland repsonsible for thermoregulation

A

thyroid gland

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38
Q

steps of a homeostatic challenge

A

homeostatic challenge, sensor, integrator, effectors repsonse

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39
Q

how are hormones regulated?

A

positive and negative feedback, mostly negative

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40
Q

injury(bleeding) response in animals

A
  1. Challenge: injury
  2. sensor: blood vessels detect blood loss, signal is sent
  3. brain(integrator) receives signal
  4. brain signals effectors(Kidneys, heart and blood vessels) using hormones and nerves
  5. Blood pressure is raised back to normal by kidneys decreasing urine production, heart rate and pressure increasing, and blood vessels directing blood flow to vital organs. This results in removing the stimulus of the sensor
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41
Q

how do feedback mechanisms work at different levels

A
  1. molecular: transcription and translation
  2. Cellular: turn metabolic pathways on/off
  3. organ level: respond to internal and external stimuli
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42
Q

purpose of excretory system

A

regulate water and solute/electrolyte balance to keep their concentrations in a specific range

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43
Q

osmoregulation

A

mechanisms to control solute concentrations by taking in and letting out water

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44
Q

general purpose of kidneys

A

clean out waste products from blood to urine using active transport

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45
Q

molecules with high permeability

A

gases have the highest then very small and uncharged polar molecules

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46
Q

molecules with moderate permeability

A

water and urea

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47
Q

molecules with low permeability

A

polar organic molecules, glucose

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48
Q

molecules with very low permeability

A

ions, charged polar molecules and macromolecules(amino acids, ATP, proteins, etc)

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49
Q

what does the excretory movement depend on to do its job?

A

movement of water and solute across membranes

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50
Q

how does water typically move?

A

facilitated diffusion

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51
Q

how do solutes typically move?

A

facilitated diffusion and active transport

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52
Q

what follows ions and solutes when they are pumped out?

A

water

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53
Q

hypotonic vs hypertonic cells

A

hypotonic: fills with water, lysed cells
hypertonic: water leaves cell, cell shrivels

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54
Q

what kind of adaptations for water do land animals have?

A

adaptations to reduce water loss. they have body coverings, good food from water and have metabolic water

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55
Q

what affects how animals deal with water?

A

its surrounding environment

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56
Q

osmoregulation in a marine fish

A

gets water and salt ions from food, excretes salt ions through gills, loses water from gills and body surface, drinks seawater, urine excretes salt and small amounts of water from kidneys

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57
Q

osmoregulation in freshwater fish

A

gains water and ions from food, gills uptake ions, water enters through gills and body surface, excrete salt ions and large amounts of water in dilute urine from kidneys

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58
Q

metabolic water

A

adding electrons to oxygen and combining with H+ to produce water

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59
Q

How are salt water fish able to drink water?

A

they have specialized organs to remove the salt from the water

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60
Q

how do sea turtles secrete salt?

A

through their eyes

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61
Q

What is the main water obstacle for freshwater fish and how do they deal with it?

A

they have to prevent too much water from coming in so they secrete it in their waste products

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62
Q

What is special about salmon and their environment(s)

A

they live in the ocean but swim up freshwater streams to reproduce

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63
Q

tardigrades

A

found everywhere, have 8 legs, unique, resistant to heat/uvrays/dessication, they can be ressurected when you add water

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64
Q

dessication

A

removal of water

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65
Q

milk fever

A

happens in female cows after having babies, they have a depletion of Ca in their blood because they are giving milk. They collapse because they need Ca to contract muscles

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66
Q

How was gatorade invented?

A

ions in the sweat of athletes were analyzed and then salt and sugar were added to it to make a drink that replaces the exact electrolytes lost when sweating

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67
Q

what determines how expensive it is to make urine?

A

bigger difference between inside and outside environments/concentrations makes it more expensive to make urine. It is also determined by how easily water and solutes cross the body covering(permeability) and the amount of pumping required.

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68
Q

fluid filtration and waste removal process

A

takes place in specialized transport epithelium that are organized to control movement of solutes in specific directions.

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69
Q

what happens when a substance get’s filtered into the urine that the body needs?

A

it gets reabsorbed into the body again

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70
Q

what are internal structures surrounded by?

A

interstitial fluid

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71
Q

how does slat excretion in marine birds work?

A

there is more salt on the blood side compared to the kidney side that undergoes the countercurrent exchange via facilitated diffusion. Tubules made of different proteins carry the salt. They have nasal salt glands and secrete it through their beak. Vein called capillary secretory tubule and tubules are separated by transport epithelum

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72
Q

nitrogenous waste

A

all animals secrete nitrogenous waste because it is toxic in order to balance waste and water toxicity

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73
Q

nitrogenous wastes from most to least toxic or cheapest to most expensive

A

Ammonia, urea, uric acid

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74
Q

which nitrogenous wastes requires the most water?

A

ammonia because it is most topic, so it needs to be diluted most

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75
Q

protonephridia

A

organ in flatworms that use filtration through flame cells, solutes are absorbed back into the interstitial fluid and then waste exits through pores. They have no kidneys

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76
Q

How do insects get rid of wastes?

A

they use secretion more than excretion, they have an open cirulatory system, hemoplymph flows inside to pick up waste products, insects produce waste called frass, malpighian tubules extend into hemolymph

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77
Q

hemolymph

A

salts, uric acid and water

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78
Q

what allows freshwater fish to urinate inexpensively

A

they are surrounded by water

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79
Q

What is urine like in freshwater fish and how is it produced

A

rapid filtration, very dilute

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80
Q

urine of desert animals

A

very concentrated

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81
Q

what impacts the function of the vertebrate kidney?

A

the evolutionary/life history of vertebrates

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82
Q

what is the loop of henle made of?

A

long portions of nephrons

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83
Q

functional unit of kidneys

A

nephrons

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84
Q

purpose of kidney

A

clean blood, filter solutes for water and concentrate waste

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85
Q

artery and vein of kidney

A

renal artery/vein

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86
Q

from where does blood enter the kidney? where does it go after?

A

it enters from the renal artery, into the kidney, then to a nephron

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87
Q

Order liquid entering the kidney

A
  1. blood enters glomerulus
  2. filtrate enters Bowman’s capsule
  3. proximal convoluted tube
  4. loop of Henle
  5. distal convoluted tube
  6. collecting duct
  7. Renal pelvis
  8. Ureter
  9. bladder
  10. urethra
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88
Q

what does the kidney used to exchange solutes?

A

countercurrent exchange

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89
Q

where does filtration take place in the kidney?

A

Bowman’s capsule

90
Q

Where does exchange between solutes and water take place?

A

capillaries near loop of Henle

91
Q

glomerulus structure

A

bends and curve to artery

92
Q

Where does oxygen go in the kidney?

A

from artery to cells

93
Q

Where does the afferent and efferent arteriole go?

A

Afferent: enters Bowman’s capsules

Efferent: exits Bowman’s capsules

94
Q

definition of convoluted

95
Q

what process is used to move molecules and why?

A

diffusion to save energy

96
Q

What are all the kidney structures made of?

A

epithelial cells?

97
Q

What is true of all the proteomes of the kidney structures?

A

they have different proteomes

98
Q

Renal corpuscle

A

inside Bowman’s capsule

99
Q

Fenestrated capillaries

A

capillaries with openings in the glomerulus

100
Q

filtrate in kidney’s

A

has nitrogenous waste, pushed through capillary openings, goes through nephrons, 99% of water and nutrients are reabsorbed into the blood

101
Q

loop of Henle in diferent animals

A

longer in desert animals, shorter in freshwater fish

102
Q

What transports water in the kidneys?

A

aquaporins

103
Q

proximal convoluted tubule function

A

reabsorption of water, ions and nutrients, regulates pH by producing ammonia

104
Q

descending arm of loop of Henle function

A

aquaporins for water absorption, few salt transporters

105
Q

Ascending arm of loop of Henle

A

membrane becomes permeable to NaCl initially, then switches to active transport of NaCl. NaCl gets removed because we need it

106
Q

Distal convoluted tube function

A

Regulates K+, NaCl and pH by absorbing a carbonate buffer

107
Q

collecting duct in kidneys

A

final processing step in producing urine, hormonal control and permeability, gene expression can be changed

108
Q

what is in charge of thirst?

A

thirst signals are picked up by hypothalamus to trigger the kidney to keep more water in the body and less water in the urine

109
Q

effect of alcohol on kidney

A

inhibits diuretic hormone, making you pee alot

110
Q

how are the excretory system and circulatory system related?

A

excretory filters/absorbs products from circulatory system

111
Q

general purpose of respiratory system

A

gas exchange

112
Q

List of types of circulatory systems

A
  1. Gastrovascular cavity
  2. Open system
  3. Closed system
113
Q

Gastrovascular system

A

circulatory system in which food is digested in a cavity, cells are located close enough for diffusion to suffice, water is used to circulate nutrients and wastes. Includes cnidarians, jellies, sea anenome, and filter feeders.

114
Q

Purpose of cavity is gastrovascular system

A

eat larger prey

115
Q

open system

A

type of circulatory system containing hemolymph mixed with interstitial fluid, vessels open into a body cavity called a coelom, contains one or more hearts, tubules filter hemolymph, activity of organism helps pump fluid around, arthropods and mollusks, nutrients exchanged by diffusions, metabolically inexpensive, substances cant be directed to specific tissues

116
Q

significance of horseshoe crabs

A

they for a very long time and their blood is blue because of the copper in their hemoglobin. Their blood contains LAL, a clotting agent the will encase gram negative bacteria in a cocoon and exposes it to the immune system. Only a tiny amount of LAL is needed

117
Q

How does LAL interact with bacteria

A

it interacts with gram negative bacteria by reacting with the outer endotoxin membrane

118
Q

Why is LAL medically important?

A

people will get sepsis with gram negative bacteria are killed in their bodies without LAL

119
Q

closed system

A

type of circulatory system in which blood and interstitial fluid do not mix, all cells are very close to a capillary, blood is pumped under pressure by one or more hearts, targets specific blood to specific tissues, system grows as animal grows, earthworms/cephalopods/vertebrates

120
Q

Types of closed systems in vertebrates

A
  1. single circulation
  2. intermediate circulation
  3. double circulation
121
Q

single circulation

A

type of closed circulatory system in vertebrates system where oxygenized and deoxygenized blood mixes, very efficient gas exchange in gills, gills oxygenate blood

122
Q

intermediate circulation

A

type of closed circulatory system in vertebrates with 2 atria, 1 ventricle, separate blood coming from body and blood coming from lungs, pulmocutaneous and systemic circulation, mixing is balanced by skin absorption, skin and lungs oxygenate blood

123
Q

double circulation

A

type of closed circulatory system in vertebrates, 4 chambered heart, separation of oxygenated/deoxygenated blood, pulmonary and systemic circulation, fluid is pumped to body tissues

124
Q

Arteries

A

lead away from heart, layers of smooth muscle and connective tissue, can constrict or dilate

125
Q

veins

A

lead to heart, thinner than arteries, need help getting blood back to the heart by contracting muscles, some have valves to assist

126
Q

blood flow sequence in the heart

A
  1. right atrium
  2. right av valve
  3. right ventricle
  4. right av valve closing
  5. semilunar valves
  6. lungs/pulmonary system for oxygenation
  7. pulmonary veins
  8. left atrium
  9. left av valve/semilunar valve
  10. left ventricle
127
Q

heart beat steps

A

atria beat, then ventricles beat

128
Q

why is the wall on the right side of the heart thicker?

A

the pressure is higher since the blood is oxygenated, pulmonary arteries have a shorter distance to pump to, stronger pump is needed for oxygenated blood

129
Q

Neurogenic heart

A

regular electrical impulse from nervous system makes heart beat

130
Q

Myogenic heart

A

heart beat is regulated by signals generated by the heart itself(humans), heart beats independently of brain and spinal functions, why heart beats after we die

131
Q

atrial excitation

A

first signal is caused by the Sa node(pacemaker)/first pump, second signal is caused by AV node(second pump).

132
Q

how do heart valves close?

A

fibers, connective tissues, and heart strings keep the valve in the right position

133
Q

purpose of heart valves

A

prevent blood from going from ventricle back into the atrium

134
Q

ventricular excitation

A

cells making up pukinje fibers conduct signals faster than other heart cell type, this speeds up heart rate signal in spinal tissue(fight/flight response)

135
Q

What causes heart rate to slow down and what response is it called?

A

brain(feed or breed response)

136
Q

arterioles

A

can constrict and dilate to regulate blood flow

137
Q

structure of capillaries and nephrons

A

netting of capillaries around each nephron

138
Q

large veins

A

large veins: few layers of smooth muscle and connective tissue, few elastic layers, wide lumen

139
Q

venules

A

medium sized, between large veins and fenestrated capillaries

140
Q

large artery

A

many layers of smooth muscle and connected tissue, several elastic layers, smaller lumen

141
Q

Smallest vein vs smallest artery

A

Vein: fenestrated capillary

Artery: continuous capillary

142
Q

differences between arterioles and venules

A

arteriole: high pressure, high protein, water and solutes leave capillary, brings blood to other regions of tissue
venule: low pressure, high protein, water and solutes enter, brings in fluid, small thin extensions of capillaries

143
Q

what connects an arteriole and venule?

144
Q

interstital fluid characteristics

A

low pressure, low protein, excess water and solutes enter lymph vessels and return to blood

145
Q

heart complexity of organisms with open circulatory systems vs closed

A

less complex hearts

146
Q

characteristics of tissues involved in gas exchange

A

moist tissue with large surface area

147
Q

what determines the structure used for gas exchange in a given organism?

A

the environment around it

148
Q

operculum

A

covers and protects gills

149
Q

functions and characteristics of gills

A

they can be internal or external, used counter-current exchange, maximize oxygen diffusion from water into blood, move water and blood in opposite directions

150
Q

which fluid in the gill has the most oxygen?

A

always water

151
Q

How is oxygen able to diffuse into the blood in gills?

A

water has higher O2 concentration so it naturally diffuses into the blood

152
Q

insect trachea

A

muscles draw air in, tracheoles terminate near every body cell, fluid allows gas exchange, very efficient because of direct contact, all insect tissue contacts tracheoles,

153
Q

Lungs among different animals

A

present among nearly all terrestrial vertebrates for gas exchange, amphibians fill lungs with positive pressure, reptiles/birds/mammals use negative pressure, different types of ventilation in different animals

154
Q

DIfference between using positive vs using negative pressure to pull air in lungs

A

positive: push air in
neagtive: pull air in

155
Q

human trachea

A

branch into each lung, special cells line trachea that secret mucus to trap dirt and keep it away from deep lung tissue, cilia beat dirt back from trachea to throat for you to swallow waste

156
Q

how does smoking affect the trachae?

A

it kills the cilia that remove waste so you have to cough waste up, giving you “smokers cough”

157
Q

alveoli

A

air sacs with lots of capillaries where gas exchange occurs, deep in longs, CO2 is released, O2 enters blood, happens at the cellular level

158
Q

what does oxygen do in the body?

A

dissolve in blood or other fluids, bind to respiratory pigments(red= iron, Cu=blue), can damage cell because it is very reactive, take electrons, bond to hemoglobin

159
Q

hemoglobin binding

A

cooperative bonding where binding of one oxygen causes higher affinity for more oxygen, can bond with 4 molecules of oxygen,

160
Q

hemoglobin

A

molecules bind to Hb protein(1 on each polypeptide), quaternary structure, made of 4 individual polypeptides, adults have 2 alpha and 2 beta polypeptides, fetal/embryos have different polypeptides with higher O2 affinity(embryo has highest)

161
Q

how does carbon monoxide poisoning happen?

A

it binds to your hemoglobin in place of oxygen and fills you blood when oxygen should be

162
Q

2 systems in animals for communication

A

endocrine and nervous systems

163
Q

endocrine system

A

hormone signaling, ductless glands that secret chemical signals directly into the blood(circulatory system), chemicals travel to target tissue, slow but long lasting

164
Q

Nervous system

A

system of neurons, transmits and electrical signal by sending electrical action potential along neurons to target tissue, quick but short lived

165
Q

functions that all organ systems share in animals

A

homeostasis

166
Q

functions of endocrine system

A

metabolic rate, growth, maturation, reproduction, stimulus

167
Q

water soluble hormones

A

polypeptides and amines(epinephrine)

168
Q

lipid soluble hormones

A

steroids and amines(thyroxine), receptor protein in nulceus/cytoplasm

169
Q

examples of positive feedback in endocrine system

A

suckling/giving milk to babies

170
Q

positive feedback in endocrine system

A

stimulus effects hypothalamus, activating neurosecretory cell, secreting a hormone that goes to the posterior pituitary gland then the blood vessel

171
Q

what is special about endocrine glands

A

they are ductless

172
Q

difference between exocrine and endocrine glands

A

exocrine glands(sweat glands, lymph nodes and salivary glands do not produce hormones and they release products with ducts

173
Q

pineal gland

A

produce melatonin, which regulates biological rhythms and internal clock, located in central brain

174
Q

hypothalamus

A

coordinates endocrine signaling, regulates pituitary glands, lower middle brain, next to pituitary gland

175
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A

produces growth hormone(GH) which regulates cell growth

176
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A

produces antidiuretic hormone(ADH/vasopressin), promotes retention of water in kidneys, ADH is inhibited by alcohol

177
Q

how does the antidiuretic hormone work?

A

they are released from the posterior pituitary and bind to and activate membrane receptors on collecting duct cells. This initiates a signal cascade leading to insertion of aquaporin proteins into the membrane lining the collection duct, increasing water recaptures and reduces urine volume

178
Q

thyroid gland

A

produces thyroid hormone(T3 and T4) and calcitonin. Thyroid hormone maintains metabolism and calcitonin lowers blood calcium level, located in neck above parathyroid glands

179
Q

parathyroid gland

A

produces parathyroid hormone(PTH) which raises blood calcium level, located in neck below thyroid glands

180
Q

pancreas

A

produces insulin and glucagon. Insulin lower blood glucose level and glucagon raises blood glucose level, located on top of both kidneys

181
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

produces glucocorticoids which is anti-inflammatory

182
Q

adrenal medulla

A

produces epinephrine which is in charge of the flight/fight response

183
Q

ovary

A

produces estrogen, which in charge of female sex characteristics

184
Q

testes

A

produce testosterone which are in charge of male sex characteristics

185
Q

Central nervous system

A

(CNS) brain and spinal chord

186
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

(PNS) nerves and ganglia, contain sensory and nervous divisions

187
Q

sensory divison

A

part of PNS, afferent, pick up stimuli

188
Q

motor division

A

part of (PNS) efferent, send direction from your brain to muscles and glands, consist of autonomic nervous system and motor system

189
Q

motor system

A

in motor division and PNS, somatic nervous system, voluntary, skeletal muscles

190
Q

autononmic nervous system

A

part of motor division and PNS, involuntary, heart beating and lungs breathing, consist of Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

191
Q

Sympathetic division

A

part of autonomic nervous system, motor division and PNS, flight/fight response, helps heart beat, respiration increases

192
Q

parasympathetic division

A

part of autonomic nervous system, PNS and peripheral nervous system, rest and digest response, promote calming and relaxing

193
Q

neurons

A

nerve cells that transfer information within the body

194
Q

cell body

A

most of a neurons organelles are found here

195
Q

dendrites

A

branched extensions that receives signals from other neurons

196
Q

axon

A

a much longer extensions than dendrites that transmits signals to other cells at their synapses

197
Q

synapse

A

junction between an axon and another cell

198
Q

glial cells

A

nourish neurons, insulate axons, regulate extracellular fluid surrounding neurons, replenish certain neurons

199
Q

Astrocytes

A

glial cells in the central nervous system that support and regulate ions

200
Q

Microglial cells

A

glial cells in the central nervous systems that protect against pathogens

201
Q

Ependymal cells

A

glial cells in the central nervous system that create, secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid

202
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

glial cells in the central nervous system that wrap and insulate and form myelin sheath

203
Q

Schwann cells

A

glial cells in the PNS that insulate and help form the myelin sheath

204
Q

stimulus pathway nervous system

A

receives stimulus neurons to transmit information about stimuli, then interneurons integrate and interpret the information, then motor neurons transmit signals to muscle cells, causing them to contract

205
Q

resting potential

A

-70mv potential of the membrane, transport 3Na+ out for every 2K+ moved in

206
Q

action potential process

A
  1. resting state
  2. depolarization: Na+ is let in the cell
  3. rising phase: more Na+ is let in more rapidly than before
  4. falling phase: Na+ flow is stopped, K+ is released from the cell
  5. Undershoot: K+ concentration and membrane potential falls slightly lower than the resting state and it then restored
207
Q

types of synpases

A
  1. Electrical: gap junctions, fast, ions flow through gap junction channels that bind post and pre synpatic membrane
  2. Chemical synpases: release neurotransmitters, more abundant, slower, more precise, more selective, neurotransmitters are kept in the vesicles in the presynaptic membrane and ions flow through postsynaptic neurostransmitter receptor
208
Q

Chemical synpases process

A
  1. action potential arrives, depolarizing the presynpatic membrane
  2. depolarization opens the voltage-gate channels triggering an influx of Ca2+
  3. Increase in calcium concentration causes fusion of vesicles with the presynpatic membrane
  4. Neurotransmitter binds to ligand-gated ion channels in th epostsynpatic membrane
  5. Na+ and K+ diffuse through membrane and electrical signals are transmitted
209
Q

Neuronal plasticity

A

describes the ability of the nervous system to be modified after birth, cahnges can strengthen or weaken signaling at a synpase. If two synpases on the same postsynaptic cell are often active at the same time, the strength of the postsynaptic response may increase at both

210
Q

how is chromosome number maintained in humans

A

fertilization and meiosis alternate

211
Q

GnRH

A

gonadotropin released hormone

212
Q

FSH

A

follicle-stimulating hormone

213
Q

LH

A

lutenizing hormone

214
Q

what inhibits the menstrual cycle?

A

estradiol and progesterone in the hypothalamus and low levels of estradiol in the anterior pituitary

215
Q

what stimulates the menstrual cycle?

A

high levels of estradiol

216
Q

menstrual cycle

A
  1. Hypothalamus releases GnRH
  2. anterior pituitary releases FSH and LH
  3. Pituiary gonadotropins enter blood.
  4. FSH and LH stimulate follicle to grow. Estradiol is secreted from growing follicle in growing amounts, causing LH surge
  5. LH surge triggers ovulation
  6. follicle matures
  7. Corpus luteum forms and degenerates, luteal phase, progesterone and estradiol are secreted by luteum
  8. progesterone and estradiol promote thickening endometrium
217
Q

follicular phase

A

days 0-14 of the menstrual cycle

218
Q

luteal phase

A

day 14-28 of the menstrual cycle

219
Q

conception

A

fertilization of an egg by a sperm, occurs in oviduct

220
Q

Conception process

A
  1. ovulation releases a secondary oocyte that enters the oviduct
  2. sperm enters the oocyte and nuclei of oocyte and sperm fuse to produce a zygote
  3. Cleavage/cell division begins in the oviduct as the embryo as the embryo is moved toward the uterus
  4. Cleavage continues. Embryo reaches uterus anf is nourished by endometrial secretion for several days, then it becomes a blastocyst
  5. blastocyst implants in the endometrium about 7 days after conception

Bio 116H Dr Balish/Zhao (6 decks)

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