Final exam Flashcards
(220 cards)
1
Q
common challenges for multicellular and multi-tissue organisms
A
- support
- gas exchange
- nutrient transport
- water removal
- water balance
- temperature maintenance
- communication/control
2
Q
convergent evolution
A
results in similar adaptations of diverse organisms facing the same challenges
3
Q
multicellular animal with sac-like structures
A
tissues layer that are 2-cells thick, each cell uses diffusion for molecule exchange, early plants have similar adaptations
4
Q
examples of flat multicellular organisms
A
seaweed, flatworm and nudibranch mollusk
5
Q
what causes diverse life forms to emerge?
A
competition and natural selection
6
Q
what emerged from the sac-like animal form as a result of competition and natural selection?
A
cells bathed in interstitial fluid for exchange rather than external fluid, tube like form with specialized organ along the tube
7
Q
how did animals increases surface area as they evolved?
A
branching and folding
8
Q
purpose of organ systems working together
A
maintain homeostasis
9
Q
list of 4 main types of animal tissues
A
- epithelial
- connective
- muscle
- nervous
10
Q
epithelial tissue
A
- cover and line body
- cells are tightly joined together
- can be simple or stratified
11
Q
connective tissue(list types)
A
- consist of fibrous tissue, loose connective tissue and mineralized connective tissue
- bind and support other tissues
- have many specialized cells
- sparsely packed cells in extracellular matric of protein fibers
12
Q
Loose connective tissue
A
binds epitelial tissues, holds organs in place, adipose, blood
13
Q
fibrous connective tissues
A
tendons, muscle, bone, and ligaments
14
Q
ligaments
A
fibrous connective tissue that holds joints
15
Q
mineralized connective tissue
A
bones, osteoblasts and osteoclasts
16
Q
list of types of muscle tissue
A
- striated
- smooth
- cardiac
17
Q
striated tissue
A
muscle tissue responsible for voluntary movement
18
Q
general purpose of muscle tissue
A
different arrangements of actin and myosin fibers
19
Q
smooth tissue
A
muscle tissue responsible for involuntary movements
20
Q
cardiac tissue
A
muscle tissue responsible for contraction of the heart
21
Q
purpose of fibers in tissue+example
A
fibers give strength and flexibility(collagen), join connective tissue to other tissues
22
Q
elastic fibers
A
snap back to original shape and origin
23
Q
nervous tissue types and function
A
- Neurons: transmit impulses
2. glial: support cells
24
Q
how do organisms overcome the challenge of moving molecules?
A
tissues, organs and organ systems
25
how do organisms overcome the challenge of coordination and control
multi-tissue and multi-organ systems
26
Endocrine system
1. hormones are released upon receiving a signal
| 2. often in conjunction with nervous system
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endocrine system signaling
stimulus is received by endocrine cell and signal travels everywhere, releasing hormones
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neuron signaling
stimulus reaches cell body/neuron and travels to a specific location, causing a nerve impulse and traveling to the axons
29
what regulates internal environment?
control mechanisms
30
strategies for maintaining balance(types+functions)
1. regulator: internal mechanisms maintain internal setpoints despite external changes
2. conformer: internal conditions can vary with environmental changes
31
how can an organism be a regulator and conformer simultaneously?
they can be a regulator for one environmental aspect and a conformer for another aspect
32
how do trees survive freezing temperatures?
increase fluidity of membranes and add sugar to xylem and phloem to act as antifreeze
33
types of heat exhchange in animals
1. radiation
2. evaporation
3. convection
4. conduction
34
heat exchange in endotherms
keep internal temp constant but out layers can change. On a cold day warm blood comes from the arteries and outer vessels constrict to reduce heat loss, inner vessels dilate to allow blood to bypass colder surface vessels, vice versa on a hot day
35
counter-current strategy
a strategy for heat exchange, in which warms veins are near cold veins to give heat to the cold veins
36
long term endotherm heat regulation strategy
they acclimatize after prolonged exposure to an environment
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gland repsonsible for thermoregulation
thyroid gland
38
steps of a homeostatic challenge
homeostatic challenge, sensor, integrator, effectors repsonse
39
how are hormones regulated?
positive and negative feedback, mostly negative
40
injury(bleeding) response in animals
1. Challenge: injury
2. sensor: blood vessels detect blood loss, signal is sent
3. brain(integrator) receives signal
4. brain signals effectors(Kidneys, heart and blood vessels) using hormones and nerves
5. Blood pressure is raised back to normal by kidneys decreasing urine production, heart rate and pressure increasing, and blood vessels directing blood flow to vital organs. This results in removing the stimulus of the sensor
41
how do feedback mechanisms work at different levels
1. molecular: transcription and translation
2. Cellular: turn metabolic pathways on/off
3. organ level: respond to internal and external stimuli
42
purpose of excretory system
regulate water and solute/electrolyte balance to keep their concentrations in a specific range
43
osmoregulation
mechanisms to control solute concentrations by taking in and letting out water
44
general purpose of kidneys
clean out waste products from blood to urine using active transport
45
molecules with high permeability
gases have the highest then very small and uncharged polar molecules
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molecules with moderate permeability
water and urea
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molecules with low permeability
polar organic molecules, glucose
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molecules with very low permeability
ions, charged polar molecules and macromolecules(amino acids, ATP, proteins, etc)
49
what does the excretory movement depend on to do its job?
movement of water and solute across membranes
50
how does water typically move?
facilitated diffusion
51
how do solutes typically move?
facilitated diffusion and active transport
52
what follows ions and solutes when they are pumped out?
water
53
hypotonic vs hypertonic cells
hypotonic: fills with water, lysed cells
hypertonic: water leaves cell, cell shrivels
54
what kind of adaptations for water do land animals have?
adaptations to reduce water loss. they have body coverings, good food from water and have metabolic water
55
what affects how animals deal with water?
its surrounding environment
56
osmoregulation in a marine fish
gets water and salt ions from food, excretes salt ions through gills, loses water from gills and body surface, drinks seawater, urine excretes salt and small amounts of water from kidneys
57
osmoregulation in freshwater fish
gains water and ions from food, gills uptake ions, water enters through gills and body surface, excrete salt ions and large amounts of water in dilute urine from kidneys
58
metabolic water
adding electrons to oxygen and combining with H+ to produce water
59
How are salt water fish able to drink water?
they have specialized organs to remove the salt from the water
60
how do sea turtles secrete salt?
through their eyes
61
What is the main water obstacle for freshwater fish and how do they deal with it?
they have to prevent too much water from coming in so they secrete it in their waste products
62
What is special about salmon and their environment(s)
they live in the ocean but swim up freshwater streams to reproduce
63
tardigrades
found everywhere, have 8 legs, unique, resistant to heat/uvrays/dessication, they can be ressurected when you add water
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dessication
removal of water
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milk fever
happens in female cows after having babies, they have a depletion of Ca in their blood because they are giving milk. They collapse because they need Ca to contract muscles
66
How was gatorade invented?
ions in the sweat of athletes were analyzed and then salt and sugar were added to it to make a drink that replaces the exact electrolytes lost when sweating
67
what determines how expensive it is to make urine?
bigger difference between inside and outside environments/concentrations makes it more expensive to make urine. It is also determined by how easily water and solutes cross the body covering(permeability) and the amount of pumping required.
68
fluid filtration and waste removal process
takes place in specialized transport epithelium that are organized to control movement of solutes in specific directions.
69
what happens when a substance get's filtered into the urine that the body needs?
it gets reabsorbed into the body again
70
what are internal structures surrounded by?
interstitial fluid
71
how does slat excretion in marine birds work?
there is more salt on the blood side compared to the kidney side that undergoes the countercurrent exchange via facilitated diffusion. Tubules made of different proteins carry the salt. They have nasal salt glands and secrete it through their beak. Vein called capillary secretory tubule and tubules are separated by transport epithelum
72
nitrogenous waste
all animals secrete nitrogenous waste because it is toxic in order to balance waste and water toxicity
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nitrogenous wastes from most to least toxic or cheapest to most expensive
Ammonia, urea, uric acid
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which nitrogenous wastes requires the most water?
ammonia because it is most topic, so it needs to be diluted most
75
protonephridia
organ in flatworms that use filtration through flame cells, solutes are absorbed back into the interstitial fluid and then waste exits through pores. They have no kidneys
76
How do insects get rid of wastes?
they use secretion more than excretion, they have an open cirulatory system, hemoplymph flows inside to pick up waste products, insects produce waste called frass, malpighian tubules extend into hemolymph
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hemolymph
salts, uric acid and water
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what allows freshwater fish to urinate inexpensively
they are surrounded by water
79
What is urine like in freshwater fish and how is it produced
rapid filtration, very dilute
80
urine of desert animals
very concentrated
81
what impacts the function of the vertebrate kidney?
the evolutionary/life history of vertebrates
82
what is the loop of henle made of?
long portions of nephrons
83
functional unit of kidneys
nephrons
84
purpose of kidney
clean blood, filter solutes for water and concentrate waste
85
artery and vein of kidney
renal artery/vein
86
from where does blood enter the kidney? where does it go after?
it enters from the renal artery, into the kidney, then to a nephron
87
Order liquid entering the kidney
1. blood enters glomerulus
2. filtrate enters Bowman's capsule
3. proximal convoluted tube
4. loop of Henle
5. distal convoluted tube
6. collecting duct
7. Renal pelvis
8. Ureter
9. bladder
10. urethra
88
what does the kidney used to exchange solutes?
countercurrent exchange
89
where does filtration take place in the kidney?
Bowman's capsule
90
Where does exchange between solutes and water take place?
capillaries near loop of Henle
91
glomerulus structure
bends and curve to artery
92
Where does oxygen go in the kidney?
from artery to cells
93
Where does the afferent and efferent arteriole go?
Afferent: enters Bowman's capsules
Efferent: exits Bowman's capsules
94
definition of convoluted
twisting
95
what process is used to move molecules and why?
diffusion to save energy
96
What are all the kidney structures made of?
epithelial cells?
97
What is true of all the proteomes of the kidney structures?
they have different proteomes
98
Renal corpuscle
inside Bowman's capsule
99
Fenestrated capillaries
capillaries with openings in the glomerulus
100
filtrate in kidney's
has nitrogenous waste, pushed through capillary openings, goes through nephrons, 99% of water and nutrients are reabsorbed into the blood
101
loop of Henle in diferent animals
longer in desert animals, shorter in freshwater fish
102
What transports water in the kidneys?
aquaporins
103
proximal convoluted tubule function
reabsorption of water, ions and nutrients, regulates pH by producing ammonia
104
descending arm of loop of Henle function
aquaporins for water absorption, few salt transporters
105
Ascending arm of loop of Henle
membrane becomes permeable to NaCl initially, then switches to active transport of NaCl. NaCl gets removed because we need it
106
Distal convoluted tube function
Regulates K+, NaCl and pH by absorbing a carbonate buffer
107
collecting duct in kidneys
final processing step in producing urine, hormonal control and permeability, gene expression can be changed
108
what is in charge of thirst?
thirst signals are picked up by hypothalamus to trigger the kidney to keep more water in the body and less water in the urine
109
effect of alcohol on kidney
inhibits diuretic hormone, making you pee alot
110
how are the excretory system and circulatory system related?
excretory filters/absorbs products from circulatory system
111
general purpose of respiratory system
gas exchange
112
List of types of circulatory systems
1. Gastrovascular cavity
2. Open system
3. Closed system
113
Gastrovascular system
circulatory system in which food is digested in a cavity, cells are located close enough for diffusion to suffice, water is used to circulate nutrients and wastes. Includes cnidarians, jellies, sea anenome, and filter feeders.
114
Purpose of cavity is gastrovascular system
eat larger prey
115
open system
type of circulatory system containing hemolymph mixed with interstitial fluid, vessels open into a body cavity called a coelom, contains one or more hearts, tubules filter hemolymph, activity of organism helps pump fluid around, arthropods and mollusks, nutrients exchanged by diffusions, metabolically inexpensive, substances cant be directed to specific tissues
116
significance of horseshoe crabs
they for a very long time and their blood is blue because of the copper in their hemoglobin. Their blood contains LAL, a clotting agent the will encase gram negative bacteria in a cocoon and exposes it to the immune system. Only a tiny amount of LAL is needed
117
How does LAL interact with bacteria
it interacts with gram negative bacteria by reacting with the outer endotoxin membrane
118
Why is LAL medically important?
people will get sepsis with gram negative bacteria are killed in their bodies without LAL
119
closed system
type of circulatory system in which blood and interstitial fluid do not mix, all cells are very close to a capillary, blood is pumped under pressure by one or more hearts, targets specific blood to specific tissues, system grows as animal grows, earthworms/cephalopods/vertebrates
120
Types of closed systems in vertebrates
1. single circulation
2. intermediate circulation
3. double circulation
121
single circulation
type of closed circulatory system in vertebrates system where oxygenized and deoxygenized blood mixes, very efficient gas exchange in gills, gills oxygenate blood
122
intermediate circulation
type of closed circulatory system in vertebrates with 2 atria, 1 ventricle, separate blood coming from body and blood coming from lungs, pulmocutaneous and systemic circulation, mixing is balanced by skin absorption, skin and lungs oxygenate blood
123
double circulation
type of closed circulatory system in vertebrates, 4 chambered heart, separation of oxygenated/deoxygenated blood, pulmonary and systemic circulation, fluid is pumped to body tissues
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Arteries
lead away from heart, layers of smooth muscle and connective tissue, can constrict or dilate
125
veins
lead to heart, thinner than arteries, need help getting blood back to the heart by contracting muscles, some have valves to assist
126
blood flow sequence in the heart
1. right atrium
2. right av valve
3. right ventricle
4. right av valve closing
5. semilunar valves
6. lungs/pulmonary system for oxygenation
7. pulmonary veins
8. left atrium
9. left av valve/semilunar valve
10. left ventricle
127
heart beat steps
atria beat, then ventricles beat
128
why is the wall on the right side of the heart thicker?
the pressure is higher since the blood is oxygenated, pulmonary arteries have a shorter distance to pump to, stronger pump is needed for oxygenated blood
129
Neurogenic heart
regular electrical impulse from nervous system makes heart beat
130
Myogenic heart
heart beat is regulated by signals generated by the heart itself(humans), heart beats independently of brain and spinal functions, why heart beats after we die
131
atrial excitation
first signal is caused by the Sa node(pacemaker)/first pump, second signal is caused by AV node(second pump).
132
how do heart valves close?
fibers, connective tissues, and heart strings keep the valve in the right position
133
purpose of heart valves
prevent blood from going from ventricle back into the atrium
134
ventricular excitation
cells making up pukinje fibers conduct signals faster than other heart cell type, this speeds up heart rate signal in spinal tissue(fight/flight response)
135
What causes heart rate to slow down and what response is it called?
brain(feed or breed response)
136
arterioles
can constrict and dilate to regulate blood flow
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structure of capillaries and nephrons
netting of capillaries around each nephron
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large veins
large veins: few layers of smooth muscle and connective tissue, few elastic layers, wide lumen
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venules
medium sized, between large veins and fenestrated capillaries
140
large artery
many layers of smooth muscle and connected tissue, several elastic layers, smaller lumen
141
Smallest vein vs smallest artery
Vein: fenestrated capillary
Artery: continuous capillary
142
differences between arterioles and venules
arteriole: high pressure, high protein, water and solutes leave capillary, brings blood to other regions of tissue
venule: low pressure, high protein, water and solutes enter, brings in fluid, small thin extensions of capillaries
143
what connects an arteriole and venule?
capillary
144
interstital fluid characteristics
low pressure, low protein, excess water and solutes enter lymph vessels and return to blood
145
heart complexity of organisms with open circulatory systems vs closed
less complex hearts
146
characteristics of tissues involved in gas exchange
moist tissue with large surface area
147
what determines the structure used for gas exchange in a given organism?
the environment around it
148
operculum
covers and protects gills
149
functions and characteristics of gills
they can be internal or external, used counter-current exchange, maximize oxygen diffusion from water into blood, move water and blood in opposite directions
150
which fluid in the gill has the most oxygen?
always water
151
How is oxygen able to diffuse into the blood in gills?
water has higher O2 concentration so it naturally diffuses into the blood
152
insect trachea
muscles draw air in, tracheoles terminate near every body cell, fluid allows gas exchange, very efficient because of direct contact, all insect tissue contacts tracheoles,
153
Lungs among different animals
present among nearly all terrestrial vertebrates for gas exchange, amphibians fill lungs with positive pressure, reptiles/birds/mammals use negative pressure, different types of ventilation in different animals
154
DIfference between using positive vs using negative pressure to pull air in lungs
positive: push air in
neagtive: pull air in
155
human trachea
branch into each lung, special cells line trachea that secret mucus to trap dirt and keep it away from deep lung tissue, cilia beat dirt back from trachea to throat for you to swallow waste
156
how does smoking affect the trachae?
it kills the cilia that remove waste so you have to cough waste up, giving you "smokers cough"
157
alveoli
air sacs with lots of capillaries where gas exchange occurs, deep in longs, CO2 is released, O2 enters blood, happens at the cellular level
158
what does oxygen do in the body?
dissolve in blood or other fluids, bind to respiratory pigments(red= iron, Cu=blue), can damage cell because it is very reactive, take electrons, bond to hemoglobin
159
hemoglobin binding
cooperative bonding where binding of one oxygen causes higher affinity for more oxygen, can bond with 4 molecules of oxygen,
160
hemoglobin
molecules bind to Hb protein(1 on each polypeptide), quaternary structure, made of 4 individual polypeptides, adults have 2 alpha and 2 beta polypeptides, fetal/embryos have different polypeptides with higher O2 affinity(embryo has highest)
161
how does carbon monoxide poisoning happen?
it binds to your hemoglobin in place of oxygen and fills you blood when oxygen should be
162
2 systems in animals for communication
endocrine and nervous systems
163
endocrine system
hormone signaling, ductless glands that secret chemical signals directly into the blood(circulatory system), chemicals travel to target tissue, slow but long lasting
164
Nervous system
system of neurons, transmits and electrical signal by sending electrical action potential along neurons to target tissue, quick but short lived
165
functions that all organ systems share in animals
homeostasis
166
functions of endocrine system
metabolic rate, growth, maturation, reproduction, stimulus
167
water soluble hormones
polypeptides and amines(epinephrine)
168
lipid soluble hormones
steroids and amines(thyroxine), receptor protein in nulceus/cytoplasm
169
examples of positive feedback in endocrine system
suckling/giving milk to babies
170
positive feedback in endocrine system
stimulus effects hypothalamus, activating neurosecretory cell, secreting a hormone that goes to the posterior pituitary gland then the blood vessel
171
what is special about endocrine glands
they are ductless
172
difference between exocrine and endocrine glands
exocrine glands(sweat glands, lymph nodes and salivary glands do not produce hormones and they release products with ducts
173
pineal gland
produce melatonin, which regulates biological rhythms and internal clock, located in central brain
174
hypothalamus
coordinates endocrine signaling, regulates pituitary glands, lower middle brain, next to pituitary gland
175
anterior pituitary gland
produces growth hormone(GH) which regulates cell growth
176
posterior pituitary gland
produces antidiuretic hormone(ADH/vasopressin), promotes retention of water in kidneys, ADH is inhibited by alcohol
177
how does the antidiuretic hormone work?
they are released from the posterior pituitary and bind to and activate membrane receptors on collecting duct cells. This initiates a signal cascade leading to insertion of aquaporin proteins into the membrane lining the collection duct, increasing water recaptures and reduces urine volume
178
thyroid gland
produces thyroid hormone(T3 and T4) and calcitonin. Thyroid hormone maintains metabolism and calcitonin lowers blood calcium level, located in neck above parathyroid glands
179
parathyroid gland
produces parathyroid hormone(PTH) which raises blood calcium level, located in neck below thyroid glands
180
pancreas
produces insulin and glucagon. Insulin lower blood glucose level and glucagon raises blood glucose level, located on top of both kidneys
181
Adrenal cortex
produces glucocorticoids which is anti-inflammatory
182
adrenal medulla
produces epinephrine which is in charge of the flight/fight response
183
ovary
produces estrogen, which in charge of female sex characteristics
184
testes
produce testosterone which are in charge of male sex characteristics
185
Central nervous system
(CNS) brain and spinal chord
186
peripheral nervous system
(PNS) nerves and ganglia, contain sensory and nervous divisions
187
sensory divison
part of PNS, afferent, pick up stimuli
188
motor division
part of (PNS) efferent, send direction from your brain to muscles and glands, consist of autonomic nervous system and motor system
189
motor system
in motor division and PNS, somatic nervous system, voluntary, skeletal muscles
190
autononmic nervous system
part of motor division and PNS, involuntary, heart beating and lungs breathing, consist of Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
191
Sympathetic division
part of autonomic nervous system, motor division and PNS, flight/fight response, helps heart beat, respiration increases
192
parasympathetic division
part of autonomic nervous system, PNS and peripheral nervous system, rest and digest response, promote calming and relaxing
193
neurons
nerve cells that transfer information within the body
194
cell body
most of a neurons organelles are found here
195
dendrites
branched extensions that receives signals from other neurons
196
axon
a much longer extensions than dendrites that transmits signals to other cells at their synapses
197
synapse
junction between an axon and another cell
198
glial cells
nourish neurons, insulate axons, regulate extracellular fluid surrounding neurons, replenish certain neurons
199
Astrocytes
glial cells in the central nervous system that support and regulate ions
200
Microglial cells
glial cells in the central nervous systems that protect against pathogens
201
Ependymal cells
glial cells in the central nervous system that create, secrete and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
202
oligodendrocytes
glial cells in the central nervous system that wrap and insulate and form myelin sheath
203
Schwann cells
glial cells in the PNS that insulate and help form the myelin sheath
204
stimulus pathway nervous system
receives stimulus neurons to transmit information about stimuli, then interneurons integrate and interpret the information, then motor neurons transmit signals to muscle cells, causing them to contract
205
resting potential
-70mv potential of the membrane, transport 3Na+ out for every 2K+ moved in
206
action potential process
1. resting state
2. depolarization: Na+ is let in the cell
3. rising phase: more Na+ is let in more rapidly than before
4. falling phase: Na+ flow is stopped, K+ is released from the cell
5. Undershoot: K+ concentration and membrane potential falls slightly lower than the resting state and it then restored
207
types of synpases
1. Electrical: gap junctions, fast, ions flow through gap junction channels that bind post and pre synpatic membrane
2. Chemical synpases: release neurotransmitters, more abundant, slower, more precise, more selective, neurotransmitters are kept in the vesicles in the presynaptic membrane and ions flow through postsynaptic neurostransmitter receptor
208
Chemical synpases process
1. action potential arrives, depolarizing the presynpatic membrane
2. depolarization opens the voltage-gate channels triggering an influx of Ca2+
3. Increase in calcium concentration causes fusion of vesicles with the presynpatic membrane
4. Neurotransmitter binds to ligand-gated ion channels in th epostsynpatic membrane
5. Na+ and K+ diffuse through membrane and electrical signals are transmitted
209
Neuronal plasticity
describes the ability of the nervous system to be modified after birth, cahnges can strengthen or weaken signaling at a synpase. If two synpases on the same postsynaptic cell are often active at the same time, the strength of the postsynaptic response may increase at both
210
how is chromosome number maintained in humans
fertilization and meiosis alternate
211
GnRH
gonadotropin released hormone
212
FSH
follicle-stimulating hormone
213
LH
lutenizing hormone
214
what inhibits the menstrual cycle?
estradiol and progesterone in the hypothalamus and low levels of estradiol in the anterior pituitary
215
what stimulates the menstrual cycle?
high levels of estradiol
216
menstrual cycle
1. Hypothalamus releases GnRH
2. anterior pituitary releases FSH and LH
3. Pituiary gonadotropins enter blood.
4. FSH and LH stimulate follicle to grow. Estradiol is secreted from growing follicle in growing amounts, causing LH surge
5. LH surge triggers ovulation
6. follicle matures
7. Corpus luteum forms and degenerates, luteal phase, progesterone and estradiol are secreted by luteum
8. progesterone and estradiol promote thickening endometrium
217
follicular phase
days 0-14 of the menstrual cycle
218
luteal phase
day 14-28 of the menstrual cycle
219
conception
fertilization of an egg by a sperm, occurs in oviduct
220
Conception process
1. ovulation releases a secondary oocyte that enters the oviduct
2. sperm enters the oocyte and nuclei of oocyte and sperm fuse to produce a zygote
3. Cleavage/cell division begins in the oviduct as the embryo as the embryo is moved toward the uterus
4. Cleavage continues. Embryo reaches uterus anf is nourished by endometrial secretion for several days, then it becomes a blastocyst
5. blastocyst implants in the endometrium about 7 days after conception
