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Bio 116H Dr Balish/Zhao > Exam 3(pre-ME3) > Flashcards

Exam 3(pre-ME3) Flashcards

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1
Q

What adaptations have pathogens started using for success?

A

Pain, lethargy, necrosis

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2
Q

Virulence

A

spectrum of bacterial harmfulness, avirulent=not harmful

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3
Q

Factors

A

bacterial genes that can cause harm, often proteins, depends on microbe’s genome and proteome

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4
Q

what type of gene transfer is conjugation?

A

horizontal gene transfer

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5
Q

Purpose of virulence factors

A

gain access to nutrients from host

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6
Q

Purpose of biofilms

A

help organisms stay in one place

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7
Q

Strategy of pathogens in hosts

A

adhesion, invasion, colonization/growth, tissue damage/disease

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8
Q

what strategies of pathogens in hosts don’t always occur?

A

invasion and tissue damage/disease

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9
Q

Ice nucleation

A

some bacteria can produce proteins(INPs) that serve as ice nucleators, they form ice crystals at lower temps, water freezes around the protein at warmer temps

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10
Q

Proteases, lipases, nulceases

A

break down lipids, proteins and nucleic

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11
Q

Collagenase

A

breaks down collagen, gas gangrene

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12
Q

Clostridium

A

genus that is endospore producing, anaerobic organisms

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13
Q

Streptokinase

A

causes strep throat, scarlet fever and necrotizing fasciitis, dissolves fibrin

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14
Q

fibrin

A

a connective tissue, forming a large cable to holding things together

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15
Q

post-debridement

A

removal of dead tissue

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16
Q

Coagulase

A

causes blood to clot, white blood cells struggle to get to bacteria to fight them

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17
Q

What do staph infections do?

A

they cause blood to clot with cuagulase

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18
Q

endotoxins+examples

A

not actively secreted, general symptoms, LPS of gram negative bacteria, part of outer gram negative membrane, less toxic than exotoxins

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19
Q

Exotoxins+examples

A

secreted, very specific targets, A-B, cytolytic, super antigen, botulinum, tetanus, more toxic than endotoxins

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20
Q

What affect does LPS have on the immune system?

A

Sepsis or septic shock

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21
Q

What do large doses of endotoxin cause?

A

Hemorrhagic shock, tissue necrosis

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22
Q

Botulinum toxin

A

exotoxin, produced by clostridium botulinum, most acutely lethal toxin known, obligate anaerobe, antibiotics often can’t help, come from improperly preserved foods and spores in honey, block acetylcholine(AC) that causes muscle to contract, often causes death from not being able to breathe, tiny amounts used in botox

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23
Q

Tetanus toxin

A

produced by clostridium tetani, obligate anaerobe, come from puncture wounds, released from site of growth

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24
Q

Why are deep tissues beneficial to some bacteria?

A

they are anaerobic environments where endospores can germinate

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25
Q

Toxoid

A

used to teach the immune system how to recognize the toxins

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26
Q

Plant morphology+examples

A

studies external physical form and structure of the parts/organs of plants paying attention to their evolutionary origin , examples include flowers and thorns

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27
Q

Flowers

A

“modified” or evolved leaves

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28
Q

Thorns

A

stems that have the position and internal structure of stems

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29
Q

Plant anatomy+examples

A

studies internal structure of plants at the sub-organ level, aimed at understanding tissues and cells as the relate to organ function, examples include xylem and phloem tissue and photosynthetic tissue

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30
Q

Roots

A

anchor plant, absorb minerals and water, store carbs

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31
Q

stems

A

shoot system, produce leaves and branches, bear the reproductive structures

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32
Q

Leaves

A

shoot system, flattened structures specialized for photosynthesis

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33
Q

Where do all parts of a plant that aren’t roots, stems and leaves come from?

A

they are all modified roots, stems and leaves

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34
Q

Taproot

A

1 large vertical root with many small lateral or branch roots, dicots

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35
Q

Fibrous roots

A

mat of slender roots spreading out, monocots

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36
Q

Root hairs

A

increase absorptive surface area

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37
Q

Prop roots

A

propped above the ground

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38
Q

Pneumatophores

A

Stick out of the ground/water

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39
Q

Strangling aerial roots

A

wrap around a structure before going into the ground

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40
Q

Buttess roots

A

large, wide roots

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41
Q

Foods that are examples of modified roots

A

Carrots, sugar beets, radishes and sweet potatoes

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42
Q

Nodes

A

points at which leaves are attachedq

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43
Q

antinodes

A

stem segments between nodes

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44
Q

buds

A

growth of shoot

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45
Q

apical bud

A

tip of the plant

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46
Q

axillary bud

A

in nodes on stem

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47
Q

Food this is an example of a modified stem

A

potatotes

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48
Q

Modified stems that perform alternative functions

A

rhizomes, stolons, fibers

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49
Q

function of leaves

A

photosynthesis, gas exchange, dissipate heat, defend plant from herbivores and pathogens

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50
Q

simple leaves

A

“entire” margin, continuous all the way around the leaf without touching the central midrib

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51
Q

compound leaf

A

leaves that have margins that touch the central midrib, each lobe forms a leaflet

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52
Q

reproductive leaves

A

have plantlet, line stem

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53
Q

storage leaves

A

inner part of onion, don’t line stem

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54
Q

thorns

A

sharp, pointed, modified stem

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55
Q

Spines

A

sharp, pointed, modified leaf/stipule

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56
Q

Prickle

A

sharp outgrowth from epidermis or bark

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57
Q

Plant tissues

A

all organs, roots, stems, leaves and their modified versions are composed of different types of tissues

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58
Q

Dermal tissue

A

plant tissue, “skin” of plant, single layer of tightly packed cells that cover and protect the plant

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59
Q

Vascular tissue

A

plant tissue, transport materials between roots and shoots, xylem and phloem

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60
Q

Ground tissue

A

plant tissue, any type of tissue other than dermal or vascular tissue. Includes storage and photosynthetic tissue. Bulk of plant tissue

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61
Q

Parenchyma

A

plant cell type, thin primary cell walls, least specialized, photosynthetic cells, storage cells, parents of other cells

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62
Q

Collenchyma

A

plant cell type, thick primary walls, support young parts of the plant shoot, alive at maturity, in phloem

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63
Q

Sclerenchyma

A

very thick, wood, contain lignin, specialized just for support and strengthening, dead at functions maturity, xylem vessels, seed coats

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64
Q

Xylem

A

transport water and minerals up the roots to leaves and other parts, tube shaped dead cells, tracheas and vessel elements, less complicated than phloem

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65
Q

Phloem

A

transport sugars and other organic molecules generally down from leaves to other parts of the plant, tube shaped living cells, sieve tube elements and companion cells, more complicated than xylem

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66
Q

Monocot

A

one cotyledon, mostly parallel veins, vascular tissue is scattered, root system is usually fibrous(no main root), pollen grain has one opening, floral organ in multiple of 3, parenchyma in center of root

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67
Q

dicot

A

2 cotyledons, mostly netlike veins, vascular tissue in a ring, taproot present, pollen grain has 3 openings, floral organs in multiples of 4 or 5, xylem and phloem in center of root,

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68
Q

annual plants+examples

A

complete life cycle in a year or less, sequence is germination then flowering the seed production, examples are some flowers, corn, soybean, wheat and rice

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69
Q

perennials+examples

A

lives for many years, don’t die of old age, only disease or trauma. Examples include trees, shrubs and some grasses

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70
Q

Meristems

A

regions of cell division where plants produce new tissues and organ through mitosis, region of undifferentiated cells, like embryonic tissue, regenerates new cells

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71
Q

Apical meristem

A

primary meristem, grow in length, primary growth, 2 types: shoot and root

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72
Q

Primary growth

A

Growth in length of shoots and roots

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73
Q

lateral meristems

A

secondary meristems, growth in girth, secondary growth

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74
Q

secondary growth

A

growth in thickness of shoots and roots, produced by secondary meristems

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75
Q

protoderm

A

type of dermal tissue, surround meristem, outer layer

76
Q

pro cambium

A

type of vascular tissue , middle of meristem

77
Q

ground meristem

A

type of ground tissue, surround pro cambium

78
Q

root cap

A

protects meristem, secretes polysaccharide slime that helps penetrate soil

79
Q

herbaceous plants

A

die each year

80
Q

Woody plants

A

grow each year, evolved from dying each year, grow in height from tip and diameter from sides(secondary growth) for strength, phloem produced on outside, xylem produced on inside, dicot

81
Q

vascular cambium

A

makes xylem and phloem, growing ring around tree, comes from secondary growth

82
Q

cork cambium

A

makes bark, growing ring around tree, comes from secondary growth

83
Q

vegetative growth

A

produces all parts of a plant such as roots, stems, and leaves but no flowers, fruits or seeds

84
Q

reproductive growth

A

produces flowers and their product including fruits and seeds

85
Q

hormones

A

coordinate growth, development, and responses to stimuli. They are signaling molecules produced in low concentrations by one part of the body and it is transported elsewhere. It binds to a specific receptor and triggers responses in target cells/tisses

86
Q

What is special about plant hormones?

A

they can also have significant effects in the same cells where they are synthesized

87
Q

Plant growth regulators

A

glucose and synethic/artificial plant hormones

88
Q

Where is auxin produced?

A

Shoot apical meristems and young leaves primarily. Also produced in root apical meristems, root still depends on shoot for most auxin.

89
Q

Auxin functions

A

(IAA)stimulate stem elongation in low concentrations, promotes formation of lateral and adventitious roots, regulates fruit development, enhances apical dominance, function phototropism and gravitropism, promotes vascular differentiation, retards leaf abscission

90
Q

Where is cytokinin produced?

A

primarily synthesized in roots and transported elsewhere, other minor sites of production

91
Q

Cytokinin function

A

regulate cell division in shoots and roots, modify apical dominance, promote lateral bud growth, promote movement of nutrients into sink tissues, stimulate seed germination, delay leaf senescence

92
Q

Where are gibberellins produced?

A

meristems of apicals buds/roots, young leaves and developing seeds

93
Q

gibberellins functions

A

stem elongation, pollen development, pollen tube growth, fruit growth, seed development and germination, sex determination, transition from juvenile to adult phases

94
Q

Where is abscisic acid produced?

A

almost all plant cells can produced abscisic acid, it is present in every major organ and tissue, transported in xylem and phloem

95
Q

Abscisic acid function

A

(ABA)inhibits growth, promotes stomatal closure during drought stress, promotes seed dormancy and inhibits early germination, promotes leaf senescence, promote desiccation tolerance

96
Q

Where is ethylene produced?

A

Gaseous hormone produced in most of the plant, produced in high concentrations during scenesence, leaf abscission and the ripening of some fruits. Also stimulated when there is a wound or stress

97
Q

Functions of ethylene

A

promotes ripening of fruit, leaf abscission, and triple response in seedlings(inhibition of stem elongation, promotion of lateral expansion, and horizontal growth); enhances rate of senescence, promotes root and root hair formation, promotes flowering in the pineapple family

98
Q

Where are brassinosteroids produced?

A

Present in all plant tissues, different intermediates in different organs, produced near sites of synthesis

99
Q

functions of brassinosteroids

A

Promote cell expansion and cell division in roots, promote root growth at low concentrations, inhibit root growth at high concentrations, promote xylem differentiation and inhibit phloem differentiation, promote seed germination and pollen tube elongation

100
Q

where are jasmonates produced?

A

produced in several parts of the plant and travel in the phloem to other parts of the plant

101
Q

functions of jasmonates

A

regulate many functions, small group of related molecules derived from the fatty acid called linolenic acid, regulate fruit ripening, floral development, pollen production, tendril coiling, root growth, seed germination, and nectar secretion. produced in response to herbivory and pathogen invasion

102
Q

Where are strigolactones produced?

A

produced in roots

103
Q

functions of strigolactones

A

carotenoid derived hormones and extracellular signals the respond to low phosphate conditions or high auxin flow from shoot. They promote seed germination, control apical dominance, and attraction mycorrhizal fungi to the root

104
Q

tropism

A

growth toward or away from any stimuli

105
Q

thigmotropism

A

tropism in terms of touch

106
Q

Discovery of auxins/phototropism

A

Charles and Francis Darwin were the first to publish phototropism experiments. Shoots seedlings that were left uncovered in their experiment grew towards light and covered/removed seedling shoo tips did not respond too light. Seedlings influenced lower shoot portions

107
Q

What is true of the tip of a stem in phototropism?

A

phototropism occurs when the tip is separated by a permeable barrier but not an impermeable barrier

108
Q

How does auxin work in phototropism?

A

Auxin is more highly concentration on the dark side of the plant and that part of the plant grows/elongates more

109
Q

Gravitropism

A

controlled by auxin, plant grows away from gravity

110
Q

polar auxin transport

A

transport of occurring from root to shoot

111
Q

how does auxin increase cell elongation?

A

loosening cellulose microfibrils and other cell wall parts. it increases activity of proton pumps, low pH activates expansions, and polysaccharides are cleaved by cell wall loosening enzymes, loosening the microfibrils

112
Q

How are synthetic toxins used?

A

Eudicots experience a hormonal overdose and die, while monocots can inactive them

113
Q

How does 2-4, D cause defoliation?

A

application of this synthetic auxin causes plant to synthesize ethlyene, forming the abscission layer in petioles and leaves fall off the plant

114
Q

Apical dominance

A

terminal bud’s ability to suppress development of axillary buds, under control of sugar, cytokinins, auxins, and strigolactone

115
Q

What would removal of apical bud result in?

A

Increase in sugar availability and decrease in auxin and strigolactone levels, initiating axillary bud growth. Topmost axillary bud grows and takes over, splits into 2

116
Q

Bolting

A

internodes grow long and the plant flowers, cabbage can be bolted by applications of Ga3

117
Q

gibberellin role in seed germination

A

water is imbibed, gibberellins are released from embryo to signal germination

118
Q

ein

A

mutation in which plants fail to undergo the triple response after exposure to ethlyene

119
Q

ctr

A

constitutive triple-response mutants undergo a triple response even if ethylene is not present

120
Q

What are most events in plants involved with+examples

A

pre-programmed cell death, examples include death of annual plant after flowering, differentiation of xylem vessels, loss of cytosol and shedding of autumn leaves

121
Q

purpose of unripened fruits

A

hard, tart fruit protects developing seed from herbivores

122
Q

Ripened fruits

A

sweet, soft fruit that attracts animals to disperse seed, cell wall softens/breaks down, conversion of starch to sugar sweetens fruit

123
Q

positive feedback system with ethylene

A

ethylene triggers ripening, ripening stimulates more ethylene production

124
Q

How does ripening affect other fruits?

A

Ripening apple releases ethylene to speed ripening of nearby fruits

125
Q

How does CO2 affect ripening?

A

inhibits synthesis of new ethylene

126
Q

What is the stress response caused by ABA

A

stomatal closure during drought, K channels in plasma membrane of guard cells to open leading to potassium loss, loss of water closes stomatal pores

127
Q

how do animals and plants respond to stimuli?

A

Animals: change behavior, more toward positive stimuli and away from negative stimuli

Plants: adjust growth and development

128
Q

what stimuli do plants respond to?

A

light, day/night length, season, gravity, stress, abiotic(drought/flooding/etc.) and biotic(pathogens and herbivores)

129
Q

signal transduction pathway

A

reception, tranduction and repsonse

130
Q

transduction

A

receptor triggers internal secondary messengers, bridge between reception and response

131
Q

photomorphogenesis

A

the effect of light on plant growth, only a small amount of light energy drive changes in growth and development

132
Q

Chemical event in photosynthesis

A

strong light energy drives reduction of CO2 to carbohydrate

133
Q

de-etiolation

A

growing stem changes from white with no leaves or roots to green with leaves and roots

134
Q

photoreceptors

A

pigments, usually proteins, with an attached light-absorbing chromophore.

135
Q

Blue-light receptors

A

Play a role in phototropism that is mediated by auxin. stomatal opening and closing and chloroplast movements

136
Q

Red-light receptors

A

phytochromes, de-etilation, seed germination, shade avoidance, photoperiodism and flowering

137
Q

etiolated plants

A

longer, spingly, not green, from growing in the dark

138
Q

Pr

A

absorbs right light

139
Q

Pfr

A

absorbs far red light

140
Q

phytochrome response to light

A

etiolation and de-etiolation

141
Q

phytochrome role in seed germination

A

switches between two forms and affects germination of lettuce seeds and many other responses

142
Q

Response to Pr

A

slow conversion to darknes in some species

143
Q

Response to Pfr

A

Enzymatic destruction, seed germination, inhibition of vertical growth and stimulation of branching, setting internal clocks and control of flowering

144
Q

how do red and far red light affect seed germination?

A

red light stimulates and far red inhibits germination. the last light that seeds are exposed to is most important

145
Q

photoperiodism

A

physiological response to photoperiod, influences timing of flowering and dormancy

146
Q

photoperiod

A

relative lengths of night and day

147
Q

Factor that determines flowering in plants

A

night length

148
Q

how is flowering in plants classified?

A

long-day, short day or neutral day

149
Q

how do plants measure night length?

A

by how much Pfr remains at the end of the night. long night result is lower Pfr concentrations at dawn

150
Q

long day vs short day vs day neutral plants

A

long day: flower when night is shorter than a certain length, usually in early spring/summer

Short day: flower when night is longer than a certain number of hours, usually late summer or early fall

day-neutral: flower regardless of night length as long as day length meets minimal requirements for plant growth

151
Q

Florigen

A

transmissible, flowering hormone

152
Q

plant response to drought

A

Produce ABA, reduce water loss by closing stomata

153
Q

Plant response to flooding

A

formation of air tubes that help roots survive oxygen deprivation

154
Q

Plant responses to salt

A

avoid osmotic water loss by producing solutes tolerated at higher concentrations

155
Q

Plant response to heat

A

synthesis of heat-shock proteins that reduce protein denaturation at high temps

156
Q

Plant response to cold

A

adjust membrane fluidity, avoid osmotic water loss, produce antifreeze proteins

157
Q

Physical response to biotic plant enemies

A

thorns, spines, prickles and trichromes

158
Q

hypersensitive response

A

plant response in which local cell and tissue death at and near the infection site to restrict the spread of a pathogen

159
Q

systematic acquired resistance

A

a generalized defense response in organs distant from the infect site

160
Q

effectors

A

protein generated by a pathogen that infects a plant

161
Q

plant hormones used in immune defense

A

Salicylic acid(SA), Jasmonic acid(JA) and Ethylene(ET)

162
Q

plant response to caterpillars/herbivores

A

wounding from an animal eating the plant and the chemical in the herbivore saliva trigger a signal transduction pathway that causes the release of volatile attractants for predators of that herbivore

163
Q

How do humans help plants against pathogens?

A

breed resistant species with resistant genes

164
Q

how are most solutes moved into plant cells

A

active transport

165
Q

apoplastic route

A

move through connectd cell wall without crossing cell membrane, fastest route but does not result in cell entry

166
Q

symplastic route

A

move from cell to cell through cytosol

167
Q

transmembrane route

A

repeated crossing ofplasma membranes, slowest but offers more control and is the safest route

168
Q

why can’t water use the apoplastic route all the way from the root hair to the xylem?

A

it must cross the endodermis through the symplastic route

169
Q

stele

A

vascular cylinder within endodermis

170
Q

casparian strip

A

belt made of suberin, waxy material that is impervious to water and dissolved minerals, forces fluid through selective cell membrane and into symplast

171
Q

methods of loading sucrose into the phloem

A
  1. sucrose manufactured in mesophyll cells can travel via the symplast to sieve-tube elements
  2. chemiosmotic mechanism is responsible for the active transport of sucrose
172
Q

bulk flow

A

movement of fluid driven by pressure

173
Q

pulling force in xylem

A

negative pressure pulling upwards, created evaporation of water at the leaf surface creating a suction effect

174
Q

water drives the direction of water movement?

A

water and dissolved nutrients from root to leaves along a gradient of water potential that is highest in the root and lowest in the leaf

175
Q

pushing force in phloem

A

positive pressure pushing sugar from leaves through the sieve tube to sinks(hydrostatic pressure)

176
Q

sinks

A

parts of the plant receiving organic molecules from the leaves

177
Q

When can the phloem contents move upwards?

A

in the winter

178
Q

macro and micro nutriens

A

macronutrients: required in larger amounts
micronutrients: required in smaller amounts, primarily cofactors

179
Q

macronutrients needed for synthesis and their sources

A
  1. C from CO2
  2. O from CO2
  3. H from H2O
180
Q

macronutrients from soil and fertilizer and their functions

A
  1. N: protein and nucleic acid synthesis
  2. P: nucleic acid, ATP, phospholipids
  3. K: stomata control, water balance
181
Q

Macronutrients from the soil and their functions

A
  1. Ca: cell wall and membrane structure, regulation
  2. Mg: chlorphyll
  3. S: proteins and enzymes
182
Q

how do roots uptake cations?

A

active transport, aided by secretion of H+ by root cells(proton pump) that acidifies the soil solution. CO2 reacts with H2O

183
Q

N deficiency

A

shown first by older leaves because N is mobile-can be removed from older leaves and transported to younger leaves, yellowing of leaves

184
Q

Fe deficiency

A

shown first in younger leaves because Fe is not mobile, it cant be removed from older leaves , yellowing of leaves

185
Q

how do plants get N

A

they take up Nitrate produced by bacteria in the soil

186
Q

Symbiotic relationship between soybean root nodules and Rhizobium

A
  1. plants release signals to attract bacteria, infection thread forms
  2. bacteroids form
  3. growth continues and a root nodule forms

4, nodule develops vascular tissue

  1. mature nodule grows to be many times the diameter of the root

Mutualistic relationship

Bio 116H Dr Balish/Zhao (6 decks)

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