Final Exam Flashcards
Ethics:
What is the function of the Institutional Review Board
IRB reviews research plan (makes sure its ethical) and must approve it before data can be collected
Ethics:
Name the 8 Research Responsibilities as indicated in the APA Ethical Standards
- analyze and report data fairly and accurately
- preserve welfare and dignity of participants
- review committee
- benefits outweigh potential harm
- no long-term negative effects
- informed consent
- right to withdraw
- debriefing
Attitudes:
What are the three components to attitude?
What is the component in the alternative perspective?
- Cognitive (think)
- Affective (feel )
- Behavioral (act)
- Affective
Attitudes:
What are overt ways we measure attitudes?
Questions, likert scale, Bogus pipeline
Attitudes:
What is the problem with using overt measures of attitude? Which overt measure helps to address this?
They are self-reported.
May not be willing to express embarrassing view (social desirability).
Self-deception (not sure of own feelings)
Bogus pipeline (fake lie detector test) encourages honesty
Attitudes:
What is the IAT test?
Implicit Association Test. A covert measure of attitudes. How quickly you associate two concepts together
Attitudes:
Describe the LaPierre study which highlighted differences in attitudes and behavior
- prof. traveling with young Asian couple
- were refused service at one establishment
- after travels wrote letters to each establishment “asking” if they could come’
- 90% of the establishments said no
Attitudes:
Describe the Theory of Planned Behavior
- ATTITUDE, SUBJECTIVE NORMS (what you think other people want/expect you to do), and PERCEIVED CONTROL (do you feel like you have control in the situation) influence…
- INTENTION
- which may lead to the BEHAVIOR
Attitudes - WHO says What to WHOM:
What is subliminal persuasion? Is it effective in changing attitudes?
- Below awareness but still processed by brain
- not very effective for attitude change
Attitudes - Behavior Impacting Attitudes:
What is Self-Perception Theory as proposed by Bem?
We infer our attitude/how we feel by observing our own behavior within the scenario
Attitudes - Behavior Impacting Attitudes:
What is the theory of Cognitive Dissonance that was introduced by Festinger?
- two thoughts don’t match up which creates physical discomfort and typically try to change attitudes to reduce dissonance
Conformity - Social Influence:
What are norms?
- Socially based rules
Influence:
What are descriptive norms?
- what people normally do in a situation
Conformity - Social Influence:
What are injunctive norms?
- what people should or shouldn’t do
- not necessarily what people normally do
- moral component
Conformity - Social Influence:
Describe Sherif’s norm study
- autokinetic effect: little pinpoint of light in entirely dark room appears to move bc our eyes are always moving
- people estimated how much the light moved
- also put people in groups to see if that would influence their answers; settled on 5 inches as group norm
- even 1 year later the subjects reported same number bc they had internalized the group norm
Conformity - Social Influence:
Define conformity
- “tendency to change perceptions, opinions or behaviors to be consistent with group norms”
Conformity - Social Influence:
Describe Asch’s conformity study
- task was to indicate which line length matched
- one person in group was real subject, others were confederates
- confederates gave some wrong answers
- subject went along with group even if the answer was obviously wrong
- believed group was correct
- went along w/ group to prevent disruption (normative conformity)
- variation when had a partner subject less likely to go with group
Conformity - Social Influence:
What are the factors that increase/decrease conformity
- anonymity - decreases
- motivation - increases for hard task, decreases for easy
- ambiguity - unclear task increases conformity
- unanimity - unanimity in group increase; break in group decreases
- size of majority - bigger majority increases (Law of diminishing returns: adding ppl to group past 4 has less and less effect)
- gender - depends on task; increases if stereotypical task for opposite gender
- age - higher in adolescence, lowest early childhood, low at elderly stage
- culture - individualistic decrease, collectivistic increase
Conformity:
What is the door in the face method?
- door in the face: ask for large request and denied, then ask for small favor
Conformity:
What is the foot in the door method?
- foot in the door: ask for small request and get compliance, then ask for bigger request
Self:
What is self-concept?
- beliefs about yourself
Self:
Describe the ability of self-recognition
- self-recog.: ability to identify self as different from other
- emerges in humans about 18 months - 2 years
- ex. Rouge test - put dot on child’s face and put in front of mirror. If touch face then has recognition
Self:
What are self-schemas? What does it mean to be schematic for a trait? Aschematic?
- def: organization of different traits that relate to yourself, including roles, traits, etc.
- schematic: trait is important to you and how you view yourself; also use this trait to judge others
- aschematic: trait isn’t important to sense of self; also won’t usually use this trait to judge others
Self:
What is trait vs. state self-esteem?
- trait: generally throughout time this is stable
- state: fluctuates, how you feel right now in moment
Self - Maintaining Self-Concept:
What is self-handicapping?
- actions people take to handicap performance (ensure failure) to provide an excuse for anticipated failure
Self - Maintaining Self-Concept:
What is BIRG?
- basking in reflected glory
- more likely to associate ourselves with successful people/groups to maintain our positive self-concept
Self - Maintaining Self-Concept:
What are self-serving cognitions?
- taking credit for successes and distancing yourself from failures
Person Perception:
What is attribution?
- when we see a behavior we try to figure out why someone is doing it
Person Perception:
Explain Heider’s distinction between personal attributions and situational attributions
- personal: attribute behavior due to internal characteristics of the person (ex. personality, mood, ability)
- situational: attribute behavior to factors external to the person (maybe even to a different person)
Person Perception:
Describe Kelley’s covariation theory and what types of info we look for (CDC)
- in order for A to cause B (behavior), A must be present when the behavior occurs and absent when the behavior doesn’t occur
- Consensus - how do different people react to same stim
- Distinctiveness - how the same person reacts to different stimuli
- Consistency- what happens another time when the person and the stimulus are the same
Person Perception:
What are the patterns leading to external or internal attributions?
- external: high consensus, high distinctiveness, high consistency
- internal: low consensus, low distinctiveness, high consistency
Person Perception:
What is the fundamental attribution error?
- fundamental attribution error: overestimate personal causes and underestimate situational causes
- pay more attention to person (in foreground) than the situation (in background)
- more likely to make this error when we’re cognitively busy
- with more time and motivation less likely
- happens more often in individualistic cultures
Person Perception:
What is the actor-observer effect attribution error?
- actors tend to make external attributions while observers tend to make internal attributions
- bc of perspective
- observers focused on person, actor focused on something else
- we have diff info about distinctiveness and consistency than people have about us
Person Perception:
What is the ultimate attribution error?
- when making attributions about ingroup good things att as internal, bad things as external
- when attributions about outgroup: good as external, bad as internal
Person Perception:
What is the self-serving bias attribution error?
- make attributions to maintain a favorable self-concept
- internal att for good things
- external att for bad things (ex. blame on someone else)
Person Perception:
What is confirmation bias?
- interpreting, seeking, or creating info to verify existing beliefs
Person Perception:
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
- our expectations lead us to behave in ways that alter the behavior of others
- 3 parts: expectations, our behavior, target’s behavior
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
What are stereotypes?
- BELIEF that a group of people share certain traits
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?
- we assume greater similarity among members of the outgroup than the ingroup
- we’re better at identfying members of our ingroup (ex. same ethnic background)
- bc we have more contact with members of our ingroup
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
What is prejudice?
- positive or negative FEELINGS toward a person based on their group membership
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
What is discrimination?
- positive or negative BEHAVIOR toward a person based on their group membership
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
Can we suppress stereotypes? What is the rebound effect?
- rebound effect: if we try to suppress stereotypes they usually come back even stronger
- rebound effect can affect our behavior
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
Describe Sherif’s robbers cave study and how it related to prejudice
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
Describe Sherif’s robbers cave study and how it related to prejudice
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
What contributes to stereotype survival?
- attributions (diff for members or ingroup or outgroup)
- ultimate att error (help maintain favorable view of ingroup)
- subtyping (make exceptions for certain individuals in the overall stereotyped group)
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
Describe Tajfel’s social identity theory and how it can lead to derogation of the outgroup
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
Describe Tajfel’s social identity theory and how it can lead to derogation of the outgroup
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.: What is the difference between hostile and benevolent sexism?
- hostile: having neg. feelings about women’s abilities
- benevolent: pos. feelings towards women but patronizing behaviors
- countries with inequality tend to have more of both
- high in one also tend to be high in the other
Stereotypes, Prej., Discrim.:
What is aversive/implicit racism?
- people don’t want to be racist but still harbor unconscious prejudice/discrimination
- can use IAT test to predict behavior and attitudes
Helping:
What are Latane and Darley’s steps for helping?
- Noticing
- Interpreting
- Taking Responsibility
- Decide
- Help
Helping:
What is pluralistic ignorance?
- think other people know more about the situation than you
Helping:
What is the bystander effect?
- more people that are around in a situation, less likely any of those individuals will call for help
Helping:
What is diffusion of responsibility?
- more people there are, more diffused responsibility is among people
- individuals feels as if it is less their own responsibility
Aggression:
What is aggression?
- behavior intentional/intended to cause harm to another person
Aggression:
What is violence?
- extreme aggression
Aggression:
What is proactive/instrumental aggression?
- inflicting harm as a means to an end
Aggression:
What is reactive/emotional aggression?
- being aggressive for the sake of being aggressive
Aggression:
What is physical/overt aggression?
- any kind of physical aggression (ex. hitting, kicking, etc.)
Aggression:
What is indirect/relational aggression?
- spreading rumors, manipulating relationships with the intention to cause harm to another person
Aggression:
Describe the Berkowitz study
- would people be more aggressive in the presence of weapons (aggression eliciting stimuli)
- yes, subjects who were angry and in the presence of weapons were more likely to be aggressive (deliver more and longer shocks)
Attraction:
What is the evolutionary theory regarding attraction?
- goal to pass on genes
- ignore any attraction other than heterosexual
Attraction:
What are the optimal characteristics each sex looks for in a mate?
- males look for: physical attractiveness, loyalty, nurturing, younger
- females look for: resources, maturity/older
Attraction:
What are the optimal mating behaviors for males and females? Why the difference?
- males - mate with as many females as possible
- females - fewer partners
- parental investment theory: men and women invest diff amounts of time and effort into offspring so behaviors are diff
Attraction:
What are attractive characteristics?
- symmetry, wast to hip ratio, eyes, teeth, cheek bones, smile, height
Attraction:
How is familiarity important in attraction? What were Zajonc’s finding regarding mere exposure?
- more you get to know someone the more you like them
- mere exposure: more you encounter a stimulus, the more you like it
- Zajonc showed words to ppl and found that they preferred those they had seen more often
Attraction:
What are the exceptions for mere exposure?
- awareness (know you’ve seen something before)
- initial dislike
- overexposure: dislike a stimulus if too much exposure to it
Attraction:
How does similarity and dissimilarity relate to attraction?
- more similar we are to someone, the more we like them
- tend to be more similar to our friends and partners
- dissimilarity: we dislike people who are dissimilar and tend to avoid them
Attraction:
What is Balance Theory?
- we like relationships that are reciprocal (ex. both like or dislike each other)
- unbalanced: like your partner, like your friend, friend doesn’t like partner
Attraction:
How does physiological arousal (excitation transfer) relate to attraction?
- physically excited - transfer that excitement to a person
Attraction:
What is the contrast effect?
- perception of a stimulus changes when you compare/contrast it with something else
- works for limited amount of time
Attraction:
What upsets each of the sexes more when it comes to sexual/emotional infidelity?
- women more upset if partner has strong emotional connection to someone else
- men more upset if partner has intercourse with someone else
Attraction:
What is Social Exchange Theory?
- in relationships we want to maximize benefits and minimize costs; benefits > costs
Attraction:
What is Equity Theory?
- ratio of your benefits and your contributions should be almost equal to partner’s benefits and partner’s contributions for satisfactory relationship
Attraction:
What are the four attachment styles?
- secure; low anxiety, low avoidance
- fearful: high avoidance, high anxiety
- preoccupied: low avoidance, high anxiety
- dismissing: low anxiety, high avoidance
Attraction:
What is Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love?
- combination of three components: intimacy, commitment and passion
