Final Exam Flashcards
what is a demand characteristic/curve?
cues and clues given by experimenter that then alert participant to the hypothesis
when asked about diving in class the minority of people started off as internal or external?
is it easy to switch perspectives?
Internal
No
father of american sports psyh?
Coleman Griffith
describe some of the primary features of the american models of sports psych:
type of research?
what sort of training do coaches and sports psychs need?
types of practices utilized?
no professional standards for membership
created an advisory group composed of world-leading sports psychologists
USOC created a directory of qualified sports psychs –> gave it to all olympic coaches
min qualification to be on list = membership in APA or meets qualifications for membership
field wasn’t happy about this because 9/10 don’t have any training
coaches don’t need training
we don’t look at sport related anxiety regulation
describe some of the primary features of the scandinavian models of sports psych:
type of research?
what sort of training do coaches and sports psychs need?
types of practices utilized?
“sport for all”
exercise science – athletes and non-athletes (first one to look at non-athletes)
health (they were #1 in heart disease)
coaching training: 1. sports psych - research and theory 2. application - simple techniques 3. learn advanced techniques with qualified supervision (you need a license to be a coach)
looked a lot into anxiety - used standardized tests and other methods
psychological interventions are intensive
describe some of the primary features of the czech models of sports psych:
type of research?
what sort of training do coaches and sports psychs need?
types of practices utilized?
based on intelligence - the more info we get, the better we will be
they wanted to be able to compete but did not have a large population
looked at elite athletes
role-playing therapy
authority of sports psychs was VERY high
looked at 4 things that could be distracting to athletes:
- communications -(things that can be distracting)
- telephone
- newspapers
- military time
- metric english conversions - transportation -(shouldn’t have to worry about this, gave them pamphlets about the country they were going to)
- domestic-foreign
- jet lag
- culture shock - logistics
- food/water
- shelter - medical
- altitude (knew about this before we did)
- training (live at altitude, train below it)
what do sports psychologists do in soviet model?
- marxist-leninist ideology (communism):
- everyone is trained in communist system because every now and then athletes had problems because of it (no desire to win b/c taught that everyone is =) –> used cognitive restructure —- athletes taught to look at their success as the success of the country
2. psychograms (psych profiles): (the way they identified athletes by using the school system --> kids sent to special schools for athletes if they showed promise) -personality, emotions, stress responses, coachability, social factors -used with individual athletes -used to identify ideal characteristics 1. sports 2. positions within sports 3. competitors
- autogenic/self-training:
-hypnosis (anxiety control goes up and down)
(taught athletes techniques they can use themselves)
(juiced all athletes) - stress monitoring during training:
- biological (lactate and urea) – used protein to produce exercise (urea)
- mood - education of coaches:
-research findings
-brief papers
-targeted to appropriate gorup
-short lag time
(getting info very quickly and keeping research a secret)
major reasons why there is a controversy concerning the definition and use of the term sports psychologist
only about 10% of sports psychologists are actually psychologists
what are the major events that characterized the contemporary period? 3
creation of professional sport psychology organizations
the movement was both national and international (worldwide movement)
publish sport psychology research journals –>
what is the primary challenge of trying to study the influence of erogenic aids on sport performance?
determining maximal performance
our bodies are capable of better performance but something holds us back (physiological max vs max performance)
a lot of times everything actually leads to an increase in performance because they think it will
ecological validity
extent to which a study’s setting approximates the real-world situation being studied
external validity
the degree in which your findings can be applied to the population of interest based on who the study is done on
what is the “after-only” or cross-sectional design? what are the primary steps? (2)
single observation, collecting information only one time
step 1: randomly assign your subjects to the groups/conditions (control v. experiment)
step 2: evaluate the results (compare the means between the 2 groups using the appropriate statistics)
issues with “after-only?”
differences between the control and experimental groups could have been due to chance; or, they were different to begin with (randomization failed - outliers shift the results)
what is the “before-after” or longitudinal design? and what are the primary steps? (4)
two observations that are looking for change within the subjects (before and after observations)
step 1: randomly assign subjects to groups/conditions
step 2: conduct pre-test to ensure groups are similar
step 3: administer the treatment and retest groups
step 4: evaluate results (changes from pre- to post-)
issue with “before-after” ?
pre-test standardization
when volunteerism occurs why does it threaten external validity?
because they no longer are looking at the population as a whole – only who participates in the study – biased results
halo effect
contamination that occurs because the experimenter either knows or thinks that they know something about the participant and they treat them differently
rosenthal effect
contamination that occurs because the experimenter actually knows or thinks that they know something about the desired results
what is the pact of ignorance?
participant does not admit to having any knowledge about the hypothesis or altering their behavior; researchers believe them; subjects almost always act like they do not know because they are trying to help
possible solutions for the halo and rosenthal effects?
conduct a single blind study
hawthorne effect - 4
“any treatment v. no treatment” ; the Special Attention Effect;
precursor of the placebo effect
improvements in experimental treatments/conditions may be partly or entirely due to the special attention associated with these treatments;
type of reactivity in which individuals change their attitudes or behaviors in response to awareness
possible solution for hawthorne and placebo effects?
double blind study
placebo effect
substance or procedure that results in genuine psychological or physiological effects, but lacks the active ingredients or therapeutic basis to cause those effects
predictive validity
can be retrospective (prediction of past behavior) or prospective (future behavior)
ex - SAT (weak correlation) and GPA
construct validity most important and highest form of test validity - 3
abstractions of artificial variables
do NOT have physical properties and cannot be directly measured,
regarded as being useful for understanding or explaining behavior
convergent evidence:
the construct (test) must be substantially related or correlated with other measures of the same construct, or similar constructs
discriminant evidence - time consuming
the construct (test) must NOT be substantially related/correlated with measures of constructs that are logically/theoretically dissimilar
are athletes psychologically different from non-athletes?
yes; often small and do not occur for all psychological factors
gravitation hypothesis
athletes seem to be ‘born’ with psychological difference rather than developing psychological differences after participation in sport
what % of the U.S. are physically active?
45
% of exercisers training regularly and intensively enough to improve fitness?
22
avg. dropout rate to a exercise program and when is the dropout period?
50 in first 6-8 weeks
4 major hypotheses of how exercise influences mental health
Thermogenic Hypothesis
Monoamine Hypothesis
Endorphin Hypothesis
Distraction Hypothesis
____% of the U.S. population exercises 3 times a week for at least 20 min
____% of the U.S. population does not exercise at all
22% ; 24%
What type of individual tends to receive the MOST psych benefit from exercise?
people who have depression/anxiety or elevated scores
Thermogenic Hypothesis (4)
related to body temperature (you feel better because it raises your body temp and the raise in temp can last hours)
fever therapy
hard to study
lowers muscle tension and hormonal/brain activity so it relaxes body and mind
Endorphin Hypothesis (6)
type of hormone referred to as an endogenous opiate (morphine/heroin)
released in response to stress and results in analgesia
may enhance mood
cause of why ex makes your feel better
the easiest exercise intensity = most endorphins (no clear dose-relationship)
we measure it in the bloodstream (there are 2 sources - adrenal gland and brain) and there is a blood brain barrier –> doesn’t tell us what is happening in the brain
Distraction Hypothesis (5)
exercise is superior to control conditions in reducing anxiety (it works better than nothing)
exercise mediation, and doing nothing may each work b/c participants are distracted from the stressful activities
exercise may just be a time out therapy
type of exercise has nothing to do with how much better you feel
physio consequences of exercise do not contribute to mood improvements
What assumptions do most sport psychs make about the relationship between arousal and anxiety?
As anxiety increases, arousal increases
Major Features and aspects of mental imagery
Multisensory: Touch, taste, smell, vision, kinesthetic, visceral
Different ways that imagery is used by psychologist - 7
Systematic Desensitization, Relaxation, Skill Acquisition, Rehearsal, Cognitive Strategy, Disease Treatment, Performance Enhancement/Mental Practice Training
Systematic Desensitization
phobia treatment
Relaxation - 3
anxiety control,
public speaking or test anxiety,
thinking of something soothing
Skill acquisition
learning, correction of mistakes
Rehearsal
memorization
Cognitive Strategy - 2
negative thought stopping and confidence enhancement,
change image of failure to image of success
Disease Treatment
illness/injury recovery (not supported by research), you “see” your body healing itself
Performance enhancement/mental practice training
Image training, MOST COMMONLY USED
Major Dimensions of imagery as it is used in sport - 5
perspective, modality, vividness/clarity, control, outcome
Perspective - 3
internal vs external,
- internal =familiar,
- external = unfamiliar
Modality
single sense vs combination
vividness/clarity
very clear vs not so clear
control
independent of vividness, can only be measured indirectly
outcome
successful vs unsuccessful performances
Two factors that differentiate VBMR from other forms of mental imagery
Relaxation and total sensory experience
4 potential outcomes of VMBR (relaxation and total body experience)
Performance/technique enhancement,
error analysis/correction,
general preparation for competition,
confidence enhancement
Major explanations for why imagery may improve motor performance - 5
muscle memory, efferent outflow, neuromuscular theory, enhanced self efficacy, mind-body unity
Muscle Memory
doesn’t actually describe real biological process
Efferent outflow
low level EMG activity to working muscles, see it in spinal cord
Neuromuscular theory - 2
Reinforcement of motor programs,
imagine movement, – > brain activity lights up just the same as actually doing the activity, (ONLY ONE THAT MAKES SENSE BC OF EVIDENCE)
Enhanced self-efficacy
greater belief in success
Mind-body unity
brain cannot distinguish between actual and imagined training
Limitations of explanations for imagery - 5
- What is the mechanism/how does it work
- How can imagery be measured (internal experience)
- What about the difference in the ability to control images and create vivid images?
- KOR (Knowledge of Results)
- How much is too much? (substituting imagery may result in physical detraining)
Major steps to “centering” - 5
- Relaxation (breathing slowly)
- Displace negative thoughts with positive thoughts
- Focus on cues relevant to success
- Concentrate on task-oriented suggestions, use VBMR training goals
- Use an internal attentional focusing strategy to form a mental image of success
Sports in which centering can or cannot be used -
can - 1
can’t - 2
Golf
not swimming or sprinting
What do the findings of research studies indicate about the use of psyching strategies to improve performance? - 5
- Not beneficial for speed/balancing
- No evidence that creates increased activation/arousal
- Effects on strength tasks mixed
- Athletes found to use very different techniques overall
- May interfere with skill acquisition in beginners
Basic Findings of Goal Setting Strategies by Locke and Latham - 5
- Specific > General
- Difficult > Easy
- Short-term+Long-term > Long-term alone
- Feedback is necessary
- Competition improves performance if it results in higher goals/commitment
Locke and Latham experimental findings (graphs)
all goals work the same: they help performance (no meaningful difference)
Locke and Latham experimental findings (graphs)
all goals work the same: they help performance (no meaningful difference)
Uses of Goal Setting in Sport - 3
- Increase motivation & interest of athlete (age group)
- Increase interaction b/w coach & athlete (shared goals), & among athletes (cohesion thru common goals)
- Coaching Aid: athletes learn what is expected of them
Major aspects of attentional style model described in class - 2
attention width (narrow/broad), attentional direction (internal/external)
External
focus on environment outside the body
Internal
focus on the environment inside the body, (thoughts, feelings, and sensations)
Type of attention: For a Quarterback
broad-external
Type of attention: For a kicker
narrow/broad
internal/external
narrow-external
Type of attention: For a shooter
narrow-internal
attentional mistakes that are most likely to occur with novice athletes (beginners)
overinclusion
overinclusion - 2
- Taking in more info than the athlete can process
2. Taking in irrelevant info
attentional mistakes that are most likely to occur with skilled athletes (advanced)
underinclusion
underinclusion
taking in too little info
positive reinforcement
increasing the chances of a behavior occurring again by adding a rewarding stimulus
ie extra playing time, money, praise
negative reinforcement
increasing the chances of a behavior occurring again by removing a punishing stimulus ie skip laps, shorter/easier practice
positive punishment
decreasing the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated by adding a punishing stimulus (ie extra laps, longer/harder practice, yelling at athletes)
negative punishment
decreasing the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated by removing a rewarding stimulus (ie taking away something they like, no/less playing time, no scrimmage, not on traveling squad)
reinforcement
using rewards to increase the chances that the behavior will occur again in the future
punishment
using punishment to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again in the future
Identification of reinforcers (positive and negative)
praising, smiling, applause, free time, practice, no practice, physical contact
How can reinforcement be used as a source of feedback?
It is most effective when targeted to a component of a sport behavior (should be presented ASAP after target behavior…even more important for punishment)
Improved ways a coach could reinforce
Desired behavior followed by: “you did this right” “that part was better”
What types of behaviors should coaches influence?
- Performance
- Practice
- Sport skills
- Interpersonal behavior
Positive Control
positive reinforcement of desired behavior
Aversive Control
elimination of negative behavior thru punishment (fear)
2 Major reinforcement schedules
Continuous & Partial Schedules
continuous
reinforcement schedule where the reward is used each time the targeted behavior occurs (beginners)
partial schedule
reinforcement schedule where the reward is used less frequently (elite athletes)
fixed interval
reinforcement schedule where reward is given after certain number of correct behaviors
random interval
reinforcement schedule where reward is given after a random number of correct behaviors
How to coach successfully w/ the FEAR approach- 3
- Communication of caring for athlete (so that punishment isn’t taken personally)
- Performance of talented athletes
- Teaching skills + game strategy overshadows negative interpersonal style
James “Doc” Counsilmen - major coaching accomplishments - 3
coach with 20 consecutive BIG wins, 6 straight NCAA wins, head of greatest Olympic swim teams (64, 76)
Doc’s major personal accomplishment(s) - 2
50m and 300yd records at OSU;
swam English Channel at 58 to be the oldest to do so
Doc’s swimming-related interventions & technical innovations
underwater filming & pace clock
Doc’s most famous athlete
Mark Spitz
Doc’s personal motivational style w/ his teams
peer presence, togetherness; lightheartedness
major types of eating disorders
anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa
symptoms of anorexia nervosa
. Constant appetite
- Distorted and changing perception of appearance
- Denial of symptoms/hunger
- Excessive physical activity
personality of anorexia nervosa - 5
Compulsive Personality – Hard working, struggle to achieve, social insecurity, conformity, desire to please others
anorexia nervosa general definition
Self-enforced starvation
bulimia nervosa general definition
binging and purging
symptoms of bulimia nervosa-3
- Distorted perception of appearance,
- Obsession with food
- Able to maintain appearance while hiding binging and purging
% of anorexia and bulimia in the general population
2%
% of anorexia and bulimia in college women
3-19%
% of college women have binged once
26-79%
% of bulimics to have a history of anorexia
30-80%
% of overlap between symptoms of anorexia and bulimia
47%
T/F: currently more women become bulimic first then develop anorexia
True
T/F in the past more women develop anorexia first THEN bulimia
True
what eating disorder is prevalent in athletes?
Anorexia
What sport presents the greatest risk of eating disorders for athletes?
Gymnastics
What models have been used to explain the relationship b/w eating disorders & exercise
Excessive exercise –> Anorexia –> Anorexia w/ Bulimia
Exercise as a Causal Factor (3 things)
- Feelings of Control
- Preoccupation w/ body image
- Low weight & sport performance
Why is it thought that recreational exercise may in some circumstances increase the risk of an individual developing an eating disorder?
the average non-elite athlete thinks that the covers of magazines and advertisements are realistic goals which causes the athlete to take drastic measures to achieve that same look
Personality characteristics good athletes and individuals with eating disorders share = 6
Good Athletes: coachable, train hard, STRIVE FOR PERFECTION, play with pain, disciplined, mentally tough, committed, HIGH SELF-CONTROL
Anorexic ppl: compliant, excessive exercise, perfectionist, deny/ignore discomfort, persistent, OVERLY self-controlled
- compliant/coachable
- hard trining
- want perfection
- deny pain
- persistant/committed
- high self control
Major characteristics of reverse body dysmorphia - 4
a preoccupation with body and musculature:
- Distorted body image
- Preoccupation with appearance
- Dissatisfaction with personal appearance and size
cognitive - dimension
objective information (weight, speed, power, distance)
perception
bodily feelings and sensations (pain, fatigue, etc.)
Factors influencing perceived exertion-Local:
legs and arms:lactate
Factors influencing perceived exertion-Central: 3
heart and lungs: HR, RR, VE (“engine”)
Factors influencing perceived exertion-Situational: 2
- Environment (wind, temperature, humidity)
2. Social (alone, group, competition)
Factors influencing perceived exertion-Psychological: 3
personality, mood, states
Factors influencing perceived exertion-Cognition:
experience-novelty, memory
how perception of effort is measured (scale)
the borg ratings of perceived exertion scale: 7-20
major physiological variables (4) linked to perceived exertion
- HR
- Ventilation
- Lactate
- Other…“Gestalt” = ‘as a whole’
what is the relationship between perceived exertion and heart rate?
RPE and HR have a linear relationship
types of exercise where perceived exertion and HR differ - 2
long duration exercise (HR does not indicate when exhaustion will occur),
the two primary cognitive strategies utilized by runners
association and dissociation
cognitive strategy used by elite athletes
associative (Self 2 - Body over Mind), directing attention to the sensations of effort and fatigue
specific sensations of association - 5
perceived exertion, muscle tension, pain and cramps, respiration, thirst
Disadvantages of association - 3
exceeds anaerobic threshold,
poor endpoint,
always at same pace
cognitive strategy used by non-elite athletes
dissociative (Self 1 - Mind over Body) deliberately ignore or distract oneself from the sensations of exertion during training or competition
Disadvantages of dissociation - 3
injury,
overexertion,
poor performance
Self one - 3
mind over body,
making conscious and deliberate decisions about what you are going to do,
manual pilot
Self two – 3
body over mind,
doing what you body tells you to do,
automatic pilot
What are the findings regarding the use of dissociative strategy on treadmill performance?
cognitive strategy should increase endurance 28% compared to the control group
overtraining
a systematically planned period of maximum training volume and intensity intended to result in optimum performance
staleness
a chronic drop in performance that is not alleviated by short layoffs or reductions in training
Overtraining Model: can lead to either 1 of 2 things
adaption, staleness
adaption
increased performance
major symptoms of staleness - 7
fatigue, depression, mood disturbances, medical illness, muscle soreness, sleep disturbances, loss of appetite
Considered the ‘hallmark’ symptom of staleness
long term loss of performance
% of OTS in endurance athletes
10%
Prevalence of OTS in adult elite athletes
about 2/3 (60-64%)
Why do adults have a greater risk than others?
More training
Prevalence of OTS in young athletes AND adult non-athletes
1/3 (35-37%)
treatment of staleness/OTS
rest and recovery for 2weeks or longer
- Medical treatment
- Psychological treatment
major findings regarding physiological and psychological markers of staleness
staleness is a psychobiological problem: it included physiological and psychological factors
relationship between training and mood disturbance
healthy:
staleness:
Healthy person: as training increases, mood disturbance increases then during tapering mood disturbance decreases (feel WORSE initially, but feel BETTER after)
Staleness/OTS person: as training increases, mood disturbance increases but stays up even when tapering (feel WORSE initially, and STAY WORSE)
exceptions to training/mood disturbance relationship?
Mood state responses to RAPID changes in Training (Swimmers)
