Exam 2 Flashcards
What are the two ways to structure an experiment?
1) “after-only” or cross-sectional
2) “before-after” or longitudinal
Which structure is more complex?
before-after
Steps of the “after-only” design
1) randomly assign subjects to groups/conditions (experimental, control)
2) evaluate the results (compare the means between the two groups)
What is a potential problem with the after-only design?
the difference between the control and experimental groups could have been due to chance (ex: glucose study…randomization failed and one group could have started out stronger than the other group)
What are the 4 steps of the “before-after” design?
1) randomly assign subjects to groups
2) conduct a pre-test (baseline) to ensure groups are similar
3) administer the experiment treatment and retest the groups
4) evaluate the results (compare the pre-test vs. post-test)
What is another term for pre-test sensitization?
order effect
What is the order effect?
changes in before-after measures may be due to the inhibition (holding back) of initial performance
What are three examples of the order effect inhibition?
1) conscious inhibition: (sandbagging)
2) learning: (improvement due to knowledge acquired between the pre and post test
3) habituation: inhibition due to uncertainty with the procedure or environment
What is a solution to pre-test sensitization?
counterbalance or change the order of the treatments (first give A-B, then give B-A) (control =A, experimental condition = B) (if both experimental graph bars are higher, then there is no order effect and the experimental condition is higher)
When can you NOT use the counterbalance method?
when things are learned and their is permanent change. Example, you can unlearn how to read, so you can’t do A-B, then B-A
what is the rosenthal effect? (researcher caused)
contamination (in a study) that occurs because the experimenter actually knows or thinks they know something about the desired results
How can the rosenthal effect ruin well-planned studies?
1) the experimenter has expectations about the results of the study from the hypothesis
2) these expectations can cause DEMAND characteristics, which are cues or clues given y the experimenter to the participant that alert the participant to the expected results/hypothesis
3) participant changes behavior in order to fulfill the hypothesis
4) THE PACT OF IGNORANC
What is the pact of ignorance?
when asked, the participant does not admit to having any knowledge about the hypothesis or altering her behavior (and the researcher believes them)
Why does the researcher believe them?
because results show that even if a tester tattles, the participant will fake a learning curve
What is the horse example of the rosenthal effect?
hans the horse could count, make change, etc. the testers were unconsciously cuing the horse as hans could detech head movements as small as 1/5”
What is the halo effect? (also researcher caused)
contamination that occurs because the experimenter either actually knows or thinks they know something about the participant
what is the example of the halo effect with national vs. regional qualifiers tapes?
tape A is labeled national qualifiers, tape b is regional…regardless of if the tapes are labeled right or wrong, the judges will score the one with the supposed national qualifier higher because you expect they will receive higher scores
what is the example of the halo effect with the experimenter who conducts maximal fitness tests?
guy in IU athletics shirt vs. guy in metalica shirt…depending on what the participant wears or looks like, the tester will expect different results and thus change his or her behavior toward the subject (ex: encourage vs. ignore)
What is the solution for the rosenthal and halo effects?
conduct a single blind study (run by experimenters who are not told the purpose (hypothesis) of the study and not given info about participants)
What is the Hawthorne effect?
- example: lightbulb size and brightness vs. productively
- inert agents or procedures aimed at pleasing a patient rather than exhibiting a specific effect (simulated treatment and the surround psychosocial context on the patient)
- the improvements in experimental treatments/conditions may be partly or entirely due to the special attention associated with these treatments
- groups = control, experimental, placebo
what is the placebo effect? (very similar to hawthorne)
a substance or procedure that results in genuine psychological or physiological effects, but which lacks the active ingredients or therapeutic bases to cause those effects
what is the solution for the placebo/hawthorne effect?
conduct a double blind study (experimenters are not told purpose of study or any info about participants and participants don’t know which condition they are receiving)
what is influence of glucose on strength from glucose alone?
the amount that is contributing to the increase in strength above the place (essentially the difference between the post-test bar height between glucose condition and placebo condition)
What is the nocebo effect? (US athlete example)
ex: US speed skating athletes were given dimpled suits but did horrible with them because they didn’t believe they would work
if placebos sometimes work, then why not use them? (6 reasons)
- costly (time, resources, money)
- they do not help everyone (some people don’t respond to them while others do)
- replying on a placebo will not cure the problem and could inhibit the search for real solutions
- they promote a lack of credibility
- the effects of the placebo wear off (ex: mark spits sandpapering his skin…only works once)
- the use of placebos can indirectly promote ergogenic drug use
Are placebos effective for elite athletes?
Yes, increased their performance by 2-3%
3 medical examples placebos were used for in the movie
- Parkinson’s
- IBS
- Clinical pain
What evidence is there that placebos have direct effect on the brain?
Brain activity mimics what the actual drug would do
3 main questions asked regarding personality in sport
- are successful athletes psychologically different?
- can psychological factors distinguish winners from losers?
- If so, are they accurate enough to use to select athletes for teams?
Can users feel better from a placebo, even when they know its fake?
Yes. The patient began to suffer when they were no longer receiving their placebo
what is personality?
- mainly stable…how people respond to situations…related to cognition, emotions/feelings, and behavior
- stays the same throughout life
personality traits are not always expressed or evident because…
specific circumstances are needed to elicit a certain behavior
what 3 factors influence the development of personality?
- genetics (extroversion)
- environment (intelligence)
- developmental factors (growth, maturation)
how many major personality factors are there?
depends on theory…2-16…5 now…two main are extroversion and neuroticism (everything else is an expansion of these 2
what are the 5 major personality factors of current theory?
- openness to experience
- conscientiousness
- extraversion (sociability and positive affect/emotion)
- agreeableness
- neuroticism (emotional instability and negative affect)
what are the three “isms” that define what is most important in predicting and explaining human behavior/personality?
- personologism: (traits are most important)
- situationalism: (environment is most important)
- interactionalism: (traits and environment are equally important)
what are the two perspectives regarding personality theory?
- credulous perspective: traits are very useful and accurate predictors of behavior
- skeptical perspective: traits are not very useful or accurate predictors of behavior
what are the two types of ways to measure personality?
- projective measures: (one-on-one, must be trained to give it and interpret it) use to infer psychological traits from interpretations of ambiguous or unstructured stimuli
- non-projective/objective measures (scantron..given to a ton of people at once): questionaires developed to measure specific psychological variables, including personality traits
what is the wonderlic test?
given to NFL combine players (basic math/comprehension questions)
what is test validity?
the degree that a personality test measures what it purports/claims to measure
can personality tests be used to predict participation or success in sports? what about other settings?
we use them a lot because we assume they work
general validity =
predictive validity + content validity + construct validity
what is predictive validity?
a correlation between the test score and a behavior
- can be prospective (ex: SAT predicting college GPA)
- or can be retrospective (ex: SAT correlating to HS GPA)
what is content validity?
the content or items on the test must accurately reflect the behavior or skill of interest (ex: parallel parking on a driving test if you live in a cornfield is low content validity but high content validity if you live in the city!)
what is construct validity?
- the most important or highest form of test validity
- abstractions or artificial variables that cannot be directly measured, but are regarded as useful for understanding/explaining behavior
- ex: all psychological variables are constructs (anxiety, intelligence, personality, motivation, depression, etc)
what two forms of evidence establish construct validity?
- convergent evidence
2. discriminant evidence
what is convergent evidence?
the construct must be substantially related/correlated with other measures of the same construct (want scores correlated but not identical…or else you would be measuring the same thing)
-correlations should be between r=.5 to r=.7 (can be positive or negative
what is discriminant evidence?
the construct (test) must NOT be substantially correlated with measures that are logically dissimilar -ex: SAT and hand-eye coordination (R should be 0 to.1)
example of construct validity in sport psych
extroversion vs. athletic anxiety vs. general anxiety
- want athletic and general anxiety to have convergent evidence
- want extroversion and athletic anxiety to have discriminant evidence
where is there controversy over the relative importance of personality in sports?
with the credulous vs. skeptical perspective
-controversy began in the 1960s when sport psychs used personality scales to test athletes…led to no findings in support of skeptical perspective
What is Credulous Perspective?
Believes that traits are very useful and accurate predictors of behaviors
What is Skeptical Perspective?
Believes that traits are not useful or accurate predictors of behavior
what has poor personality research led to?
the conclusion that personality has nothing to do with athleticism or success in sport
are there psychological differences between athletes and non-athletes?
YES - but the differences are often small and do not occur for all psychological factors
when do differences in personality between athletes and non-athletes emerge?
depends on the hypothesis! change hypothesis or gravitation hypothesis
what is the change hypothesis?
after sport participation the athlete’s personality will change (slope increases)
what is the gravitation hypothesis?
athletes appear to be “born” psychologically rather than develop psychological differences once they begin participation in sport (research supports this)
=baked in at birth
ex: middle school football players who stuck with football after 1 year = more extroverted
are there different personality types for different sports?
no - most research has failed to find consistent sport-related personality types
-ex: D1 athletes: athletes from one school are different between sports and those differences are not consistent between schools
adjustment factor = neuroticism vs.
stability
social factor = introversion vs.
extroversion
what is the iceberg profile?
graph type with point - profile for mental states of athletes from POMS
are there differences between males and females?
No
what is the mental health model of sport performance?
psychopathology is inversely correlated with sports performance….as mental illness grows, performance diminishes (inverse relationship)
U.S. wrestling team example of the mental health model of sport performance (successful vs. unsuccessful)
32 candidates for 8 spots (3 day wrestle off)
athletes completed psychological questionnaires before they competed- predicted to succeed or fail in making the team
-unsuccessful - 92%, successful = 77%
-overall VERY successful
overall, what were the mood states of the unsuccessful vs. successful wrestlers?
successful = much more vigor!!!
the successful wrestlers scored lower in negative psychological variables (tension, depression, anger, fatigue) and higher in what??
positive psychological variables (vigor and extroversion)
Are mental health model findings consistent in the same sport over time?
if it exists to the same degree in the same sport overtime, then yes (need icebergs to be the same)
are psychological differences between successful and unsuccessful consistent over time?
Yes; score lower in negative psychological variables and higher in positive psychological variables
Do these findings generalize/apply to elite athletes in other sports? (ex: us. heavyweight rowing team)
predictions of successful = 50%, unsuccessful = 84% (findings were consistent with the mental health model, so yes)
what are 2 limits of psychological predictions? (incorrect classifications)
- false positive (prediction of success, but the individual actually fails)
- false negative (prediction of failure but the individual actually succeeds)
do these findings generalize or apply to non-elite athletes competing in sports other than rowing or wrestling?
Yes
successful and unsuccessful athletes can consistently be identified on the basis of psychological information at levels exceeding changes (what is the percent range?)
70-85% for success or failure
Summary of Mental Health Model Research
- Successful and unsuccessful athletes can consistently be identified on the basis of psychological information at levels exceeding chance (70-85% for success or failure)
- Successful athletes consistently score higher in positive psychological variables and lower in negative variables than unsuccessful athletes
- Successful athletes also tend to be more extroverted
5 limitations of mental health model research
- prediction rates aren’t high enough (doesn’t reach 70-85%)
- some athletes are misidentified (false positive, false negative)
- some athletes have intermediate profiles and can’t be identified as successful or unsuccessful
- mental health model doesn’t account for important physiological factors in athletic success
- use of psychological info to select athletes for teams presents ethical problems
successful athletes are different than unsuccessful athletes, but not with enough accuracy to…
determine careers
a lot of athletes are high in extroversion which is related to
pain tolerance
football players have super high pain tolerance - why?
Are they conditioned to it? or are they football players because they can already tolerate the pain?
summary of extroversion
- Extroversion is positively associated with perceptual reduction (including pain)
- Extroversion is positively associated with physical strength
two types of perceptual styles regarding pain tolerance
- perceptual reducers
2. perceptual augmenters
what are perceptual reducers?
consistently decrease the level of a given stimulus (threshold is higher)…i can’t detect that yet
=extroverts
what are perceptual augmenters?
consistently increase the level of a given stimulus (higher, louder, brighter, etc) threshold is lower
=introverts
ex with football players and their perceptual style
football players reduce the size of the bar the most…meaning they can handle more before they reach their threshold
extroversion and physical strength example (test total pounds lifted in introverts vs. extroverts) differences are due to…
genetics, or environment, or behavior?
after 6 weeks of strength training what were the results?
introverts gained a lot due to the change in behavior, BUT the introverts were still behind in total pounds, so there are still potential genetic differences between introverts and extroverts!!
there is a long term correlation between strength and ___
extroversion
SUMMARY of personality research
- Research indicating that personality is not related to sport performance (the skeptical perspective) has been found to be flawed
- Well conducted research (valid personality measures) indicates that athletes do differ psychologically from non-athletes
- Most research indicates that personality differences in athletes exist prior to participation in organized sport (the gravitation hypothesis)
- Research indicates that athletes in different sports have distinct personality profiles, but these profiles differ from one team to the next
- Men and women athletes have been found to possess very similar profiles
what are the physical benefits of physical exercise?
reduced risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension, osteoporosis, diabetes
what are the psychological benefits of exercise?
reduced risk of depression and anxiety…increased self-esteem, and emotional well-being
in 1987 ____% of everyone was physically active in some way
45% (male and female each)
how many are currently complying with the surgeon general’s exercise prescription?
still 45%
what are the old standards for exercise?
30 minutes of light to moderate intensity, 3x a week = enough to improve body health/fitness
What percentage of exercisers are training regularly and intensively enough to actually improve fitness?
50% of exercisers train to improve fitness
22% exercise enough to be fit (3 times a week or more at least 20 minutes)
what motivates people to exercise?
it’s different for everyone, but either with extrinsic rewards or intrinsic rewards
intrinsic factors - appearance (relevant)
extrinsic factors - money, rewards, etc
how many are adhering to the old standards for exercise?
at most 22% (4/5 of people DON’T meet that standard…45% are someone active)
what percent of the population does not exercise at all?
24%
For the class, what was the most common motivation?
Health; only 10% of class though
there has been a huge growth in u.s. health club membership, but at the same time
a huge increase in obesity of adults
what is the correlation between growth in obesity and number of fitness clubs from 1991 to 1998?
r = .97 (so clearly access to gyms is not a solution)
we have a toxic food ____
environment
what percent of people who being an exercise program will drop out? and when will they quit?
50%, will quit during the first 6-8 weeks of the program
adherence =
long term
how are dropout rates related to relapse over time?
same rates!!! just as hard to adhere to exercise program as it is to not relapse with drugs/alcohol/smoking
healthy population statistics of high school students enrolled in gym classes
1991 = 40%…dropped significantly during 90s, byt 2000 it was at 50%
how did DDR help gym classes?
considered the huge surge of video games and what the younger population is willing to do and met them there. have to do the same for older people and their limitations
what is the motivation for the at-risk populations? (exercise or die)
survival!
what are the exercise dropout rates in healthy adults vs. cardiac patients?
the same!!! about 45% (they will die if they don’t exercise and they still drop out) - a greater health need for exercise will not consistently motivate people to adhere to physical activity
what physical/physiological characteristics have an impact on exercise adherence?
- age, sex, heigh/weight, fitness level have little to no impact on adherence
- percent body fat used to not, but now it does. those with lower % adhere more
what psychological characteristics don’t have an impact on adherence? what do?
- attitude toward exercise, health consciousness, locus of control, and emotional health have NO impact
- self-motivation does slightly, but very hard to change it
what personal/social characteristics don’t have an impact on adherence? what do?
Credit rating and SES are correlated, but can’t do much about it, so no impact
-social support = YES = the only thing that has a vast impact on adherence and we can do something about it
example of social support with married-pairs program dropout
8% dropout in married pairs, 45% dropout in singles
what are programmatic factors in adherence?
mode, intensity, duration, frequency, setting
how does mode affect adherence?
It doesn’t! in 2006 so many different exercise class options…almost too overwhelming!
- no type of exercise mode consistently produces better adherence
- too many options = arbitrary choices and less satisfaction
what exercise intensity has the highest adherence rate?
low to moderate = 65% adherence
what exercise duration has the highest adherence rate?
15 minutes = 73%
-to remain below 50% drop out, do 45 minutes or less
we are marketing the wrong way! we are marketing toward high intensity, long duration, etc. what do we need to market toward?
the middle! but it is not what sells.
- goals= risk factor reduction (disease prevention, mild prescription, success = average or higher!
- goals = improve fitness, mild-moderate prescription, success = average
- goals= shaping/sculpting, prescription = high-extreme, success = poor
goal setting, feedback/reinforcement, contracts, behavioral control, and cognitive restructuring =
usual tools for exercise adherence
how do goals influence performance? (4 things)
- directing activity
- mobilizing effort
- increasing persistence
- motivating the search for appropriate task strategies
what does SMART stand for? (smart = guide to goal setting)
- Specific - the more specific the easier to create problem solving strategies
- Measurable - clients aren’t accountable unless progress can be quantified
- Action-oriented - require your client to take personal responsibility for goals
- Reasonable - educate your client as to what can and can’t be achieved
- Timed - short term is best, daily or weekly goals
what is the all or nothing syndrome?
when a lapse leads to collapse (due to purely psychological reasons…think inadequate so quit completely)
how to prevent the all or nothing syndrome?
What to do
• education
• determine what is an acceptable miss
• identify high risk situatins for missing
-establish action plans
-procide make-up strategies
• flexible programs that emphasize success
a flexible exercise program will create a lower likelihood of
failure
Quiz 2 Location
https://quizlet.com/192871830/k405-exam-2-flash-cards/
