Final exam Flashcards
What groups are amniotes?
Reptiles and mammals
What groups are non-amniotes?
Fish and amphibians
What is the importance of the amniotic egg?
Allowed for reproduction independent of water
What are the different extraembryonic membranes?
Yolk sac - secretes enzymes to digest yolk
Amnion - keeps embryo suspended
Chorian - Surrounds everything in the egg
Allatnois - wastebucket of the egg
What is parsimony?
Fewest evolutionary steps
What is convergent evolution?
Similar structures that arose seperately
What are analogous structures?
Structures that arose separately from convergent evolution
What are homologous structures?
Shared structures that were passed down from an ancestor
What are deuterostomes?
Second opening of embryo becomes the mouth during development
What are protostomes?
First opening of embryo becomes the mouth during development
What are the distinguishing characteristics of chordates?
Notochord Pharyngeal slits or pouches Dorsal hollow nervous system Post anal tail Endostyle or thyroid gland
What are the different non-vertebrate chordate subphylums?
Urochordata
Cephalochordata
What are urochordatas?
Tunicates
Tail is present in larva for locomotion
What are cephalochordates?
Amphioxus and Lancelets
Notochord extends to the head to provide stability
What does it mean to be pelagic?
Live in open ocean
What does “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny” mean?
Developmental changes give great insight into phylogeny
What are mesentaries?
Sheets of peritoneum that suspend the gut in the peritoneal cavity in coelomates
Connects arteries, veins and nerves to the intestine
What is dermal bone?
More primitive, formed in the skin
What is endochndrial bone?
Formed inside the cartilage
What are the possible reasons for bone evolution?
Protection
Shield of electroreceptors in the head
Stores and regulates calcium and phosphorus
What are agnathans?
Lack jaws
What is the extant group of agnathans?
Cyclostomes
What orders make up the group cyclostomes?
Myxinodea - hagfish
Petromyzontia - lamprey
What does it mean to be anadromous?
Live in lakes or oceans and bread in streams
What was the importance of fin evolution?
Bring stability to a streamlined body
Pectoral fins help maintain depth
Resists roll, pitch and yaw
What is an estuary?
Meeting of salt water and fresh water
What are the two theories of fin evolution?
Gill arch theory
Fin-fold theory
What is the Gill arch theory?
Part of the gill arch began to expand and become fin
Doesn’t explain pelvic girdle and fin
What is the fin-fold theory?
Skin folds arose around the lateral lines and eventually split into two fins
What is a spiracle?
Modified gill
Allows oxygenated water to be brought in from top of head
What is a heterocercal tail?
Top half of the tail is larger than the bottom
Helps lift the posterior of the body
What did jaws originate from?
First gill arch
Why did jaws evolve?
Help in forceful ventilation
As organisms became larger they needed more oxygen, beginning of jaws allowed for suction
What are the challenges of living in water?
Water is more viscous than air
Much less Oxygen
Temperature fluctuates less
What are the benefits to living in water?
Neutral bouyancy
Can grow large with little regard to gravity
Good electrical conductor
What is ram ventilation?
Swimming with mouth open to bring water in
What is buccal pumping?
Bringing water in through the mouth and out through the gills
What is an operculum?
Covering of gill slits
Protects sensitive tissue
What is thermo countercurrent exchange?
Arteries run close to veins so the arteries can warm up the blood as they pass each other
What is repiratory countercurrent exchange?
Blood flows opposite of water in the gills, as water passes, oxygen diffuses from water into the blood
What is facultative air breathing?
Breathing air is not required
Used when Oxygen levels are low
What is obligatory air breathing?
Must breath air
How do fish adjust bouyancy?
Lungs can be used as swim bladder
Sharks use liver for bouyancy, up to 25% of BW
What is physostomous?
Gas is added from gut
What is physoclitous?
Gas is added from blood
What is the lateral line system?
Surface receptor system that goes from the head to the tail along the side of fish and amphibians
What does it mean to be isomolal?
Osmolarity inside and outside fish are the same
What does it mean to be hyposmolal?
Lower osmolarity inside the animal relative to outside
Bony fish
What does it mean to be hyperosmolal?
Higher osmolarity inside the animal relative to outside
Sharks
What does it mean to be a stenohaline?
Narrow salinity tolerance
What does it mean to be a euryhaline?
Wide salinity tolerance
What does ammonotelism mean?
Direct excretion of ammonia
Vertebrates in aqueous medium
What does ureotelism mean?
Excretion in the form of urea
Done in mammals
What does uricotelism mean?
Nitrogen is excreted in form of uric acid
Reptiles and birds
How does temperature effect organisms?
Higher temperatures mean a higher metabolism
What is Q10?
Change is rate over a change in temperature by 10C
What is standard metabolic rate?
Minimum rate of oxygen consumption needed to sustain life
What are ectotherm?
Heat is gained from external source
What are endotherms?
Heat is produced by internal factors
What is regional heterothermy?
Different parts of the body are kept at different temperatures
What is the main filtration organ of the nephron?
Glomerulus
What are the reasons that viviparity would have evolved?
Increased predation on eggs and reduced hatching success due to temperature and moisture
What are the steps needed for viviparity to evolve?
Increased egg retention
Decrease thickness of egg shell to allow gas exchange in body
Increase vascularization to uterus
What are claspers?
Male mating structures of sharks
What is viviparity?
Giving birth to live young
What is oviparity?
Give birth by laying eggs
What is lecithotrophic?
Nutrients come from the yolk inside the egg
One lump sum
What is matrotrophic?
Nutrients come as you need them
What are placoid scales?
Bony spikey scales covered in an enamel like covering on shark
What is gestation?
Pregnancy
What is parturition?
The act of giving live birth
What is oviposition?
The act of laying eggs
What are hyolistic jaws?
Upper jaw is freely suspended,
can move
What is ovulation?
Egg is released from the ovary
What does it mean to be catadromous?
Lives in fresh water and spawns in marine water
What are the benefits of pelagic spawning?
Reduced predation from adults in the parental habitat
Dispersal of offspring
Higher productivity in sunlit surface of open waters
What are protrusible jaws?
Specialized jaws that are used for suction feeding
Both top and bottom jaw move
What are the challenges to terrestrial living?
Locomotion Eating Reproduction Sensory systems Water conservation Body temperature control
Why is locomotion a challenge on land?
Organisms need to support themselves in order to move
What are the axial system adaptations that terrestrial organisms have?
Zygapophyses
Cervical vertebrae
Sacral vertebrae
What are the appendicular adaptations that allow for locomotion?
Limbs and girdles
What is the challenge of eating on land?
Terrestrial animals have to use their teeth, jaws, tongues and cheeks to manipulate food
Can no longer use suction
What is the function of salivary glands?
Lubricates food, dissolves surface chemicals for taste, enzymes and venom
What is the function of the tongue?
Manipulate food and move it towards pharynx
What is the organ of Corti?
Inner ear hearing organ
What is cutaneous respiration?
Gas exchange through the skin
What are proprioreceptors?
Sensory receptors that give information regarding position and movement
What is a vomernasal organ?
Jacobson’s organ
An olfactory organ
Chemicals are brought in by the tongue and wiped against it
What are the four ways of heat exchange?
Evaporation - sweat draws heat from skin to evaporate
Conduction - two solid surfaces touch and exchange heat
Convection - air collects heat, rises, loses it, then falls
Radiation - radiant heat
What are the benefits to being an ectotherm?
Can occupy enviornments with less food resources
Less metabolically costly
What are the cons of ectothermy?
Limited to certain enviornments, times of day and times of year
What are the pros of endothermy?
Can live in colder environments
Can be active at night
What are the cons of endothermy?
Highly metabolically costly
What are the hypothesized reasons that transition to land occured?
Searching for food
Dispersal of juveniles
Laying eggs in moist environments - less predation
Basking in sun to raise metabolism
What are the three types of temporal fenestrations?
Anapsids - no opening (turtles and primitive amniotes)
Synapsid - one opening (mammals)
Diapsids - two openings (reptiles and birds)
What is the hypothesis for why temporal fenestrations exist?
More muscles and muscle attachments allow for better chewing of food
What is paedomorphosis?
Adult retains juvenille characteristics
What are the three main groups of amphibians?
Anurans - frogs and toads
Urodeles or caudates - salamanders
Gymnophonians - caecilians
What is the adaptive significance of having different larval and adult stages?
Occupy different niches
Less competition for food
What are the causes of amphibian population decline?
Global warming
Habitat loss
UV radiation
Diseases
What are the challenges of breathing for turtles?
Turtles can not expand their thoracic cavity
How do turtles overcome their challenge of breathing?
They create positive and negative pressure, abdominal muscles constrict and contract which pushes the visceral organs towards diaphragm
What are the top and the bottom pieces of a turtle shell called?
Top - carapace
Bottom - plastron
What are the two groups that make up Lepidosaurs?
Sphenodontidae
Squamates
What is the group sphenodontidae comprised of?
Tuatara
What suborders make up squamates?
Inguania
Scleroglossans
What is a characteristic of the inguania suborder?
Muscular tongues
What is a characteristic of the scleroglossan suborder?
Hard tongues
What makes up scleroglossans?
Geckos and skinks
Amphisbaenians
Serpentes
What are amphisbaenians?
Burrowing lizards and legless lizards
What does it mean to be fossorial?
Have adaptations that aid in digging and burrowing
What is parthenogenesis?
Virgin birth
Female produces diploid eggs
Why are birds thought to be closely related to crocodiles?
Oviparous
Parental care
Vocalization between hatchlings and parent
Adult vocalization during courtship and territorial displays
What were the earliest evidence of feathers?
Single hollow feathers
What were the functions of early feathers?
Sensory
Insulation
Social interactions
What were the two theories for origin of flight?
Arboreal
Terrestrial
What is the arboreal theory of flight?
From trees down
Tree climbers jumping from tree to tree and eventually gliding
What is the terrestrial theory of flight?
From ground up
Bipedal runners used wings to lighten the load while running
Flapping of wings helped in horizontal jumping after prey
What is the importance of the archeopteryx?
Earliest known bird with flight feathers
What is specific dynamic action (SDA)?
Heat production as a result of increased metabolic rate as a response to feeding
What are the heat producing and conserving mechanisms that endotherms use?
Specific dynamic action
Skeletal muscles produce heat
Hair and feathers
What is the thermal neutral zone?
Range of temperatures where metabolism can remain relatively constant to maintain that temp
What is zone of tolerance?
Range of environmental temperatures where the body temp can be kept stable
What are the different types of feathers?
Contour Semiplumes Down Bristles Filoplumes
What is the function of contour feathers?
Body and flight feathers
What is the function of semiplume feathers?
Below contour feathers
Provide thermal insulation
What is the function of down feathers?
Provide insulation
What is the function of bristle feathers?
Tectile sensation
Filter out particles from nostrils and eyes
Base of bill, around eyes
What is the function of filoplumes?
Sensory structures
What is the adaptive significance of having bright feathers?
Indicate good nutrition
Resistance to parasites
Ability to avoid predators
What is monogamy?
Only one mate
What is polygamy?
More than one mate in a breeding season
What is polygyny?
One male mates with multiple females
What is polyandry?
One female mates with multiple mates
How is cheating beneficial to both sexes?
Increases fitness of its offspring by mating with better genetics
Offspring with increased variability
How does cheating benefit males?
More offspring
Other males care for his offspring
Increased reproductive success by spreading eggs over multiple nests
How does cheating benefit females?
Reduce risk that some eggs may not be fertilized
Sexy son hypothesis
Quasi nest parasitism
What is the sexy sons hypothesis?
Mating with more attractive males will mean your sons will be more attractive and be able to mate more
What does it mean to be precocial?
Young hatch feathered and self sufficient
Wood ducks
What does it mean to be altricial?
Young hatch naked and dependent on parents for food and thermoregulation
What is heterogametic sex chromosomes?
Males have two of the same chromosomes (ZZ)
Why has viviparity not evolved
Since birds are warm blooded they can keep the eggs warm with their bodies or the environment
What are the possible benefits of lactation?
Milk provides nutrients and early immune
Milk has antimicrobial protperties
What are the possible origins of lactation?
Modified sweat glands
Secretion arose as an immune response
Secretion covered the newly hatched young
Increase in secretion amount and nutrients benefit young if ingested
What does it mean to be diphyodont?
Two sets of teeth
What is pinna?
External ear
What does it mean to show heterdont?
Teeth show variation
What are the skeletal modifications and their relation to metabolic rate?
Larger temporal fenestra
Zygomatic arch - indicates presence of masseter
Specialized teeth
Development of a secondary palate - seperates mouth from nose for breathing
Position of limbs - greater movement
What are the different groups of mammals?
Monotremes
Placentals
Marsupials
What are the different families in monotremes?
Ornithorhynchidae - platypus
Tachyglossidae - echidna
What are the different families in marsupials?
Amaridelphia - opossums
Australidelphia - Tasmanian wolf, wombats
What are the different families in placentals?
Sirenia - manatees Proboscidea - elephants Lagomorpha - rabbits, hares, pikas Rodentia - rats Primates Chiroptera - bats Carnivora Cetacea - dolphins and whales Perissodactyla Artiodactlya
What are preissodactlya?
Odd toed ungulates
Horses, rhinos and tapir
What are artiodactyla?
Even toed ungulates
Hippo, camels, deer, giraffe
What are the benefits to the pouch?
Offspring can gas exchange on its own
You can bale on offspring at any point for your own benefit
What is a trophoblast?
Extraembryonic tissue that helps transfer nutrients from the uterus
What is the reproductive difference of monotemes?
Seperate oviducts and uterus
They are lateral to the bladder
What is the reproductive process of monotremes?
Eggs are retained and nourished for some time before the leathery shell is secreted
Lay eggs 1-2 eggs and hatch after a short period
What are hindguy ferementers?
Perissodactyls
Have a larger cecum where microbes are kept to breakdown cellulose
Do corpophagy
What is corpophagy?
Eating your feces to better extract nutrients, done because cellulose is broken down in large intestine, not small intestine
What are foregut ferementers?
Cows
Fermentation occurs in the rumen and the reticulum
Regurgitated and rechewed multiple times
What are the four chambers of the stomach?
Rumen
Ruticulum
Omassum
Abosmasum
What are the pros of foregut fermenters?
Microorganisms do upfront work of nutrient breakdown
Detoxify plant toxins
What are the cons of foregut fermenters?
Slower
What are the pros of hindgut fermenters?
Recieves nutrients immediately
Faster processing time
What are the cons of hindgut fermenters?
Must chew the food more
